Ekaterina Litusova

With trust in digital media at an all-time low, Numbers ProtocolNumbers Protocol aims to bring integrity and authenticity to the digital content space by creating a decentralized photo network where assets are both traceable and verifiable through its innovative Capture, Seal, Trace process.

NUM, is the native protocol token of NUMbers ProtocolNUMbers Protocol. It is primarily a utility token designed to incentivize users to create, archive and verify content with good integrity. The vision of Numbers Protocol is to create an ecosystem where photos (encompassing both images and videos) matter by leveraging proofs, integrity records and data provenance to increase the credibility and legitimacy of registered photos in the network. Participants, such as verifiers and other network operators can get rewards by providing services to increase the credibility and legitimacy of registered photos. NUM tokens can also be used to pay for services running in the decentralized photo network.

Capture App is the first blockchain camera available on both AndroidAndroid and iOS platforms iOS platforms and is now used by users from over 90 countries. It is free for all users, and they collaborate with service providers such as news media, storage and NFTNFT marketplaces to allow users to access Web3.0 photo ecosystem via this AppApp. Users can use the app to take photos, archive photos to the decentralized web, mint NFTsNFTs or access other network applications.

Content

What is CoinGecko

Overview of CoinGecko Features

What is CoinGecko

CoinGeckoCoinGecko is a site that hosts up-to-date data on cryptocurrencies cryptocurrencies. Now the platform is considered one of the largest information aggregators in the industry: it tracks data on more than 10 thousand digital assets on 517 crypto exchanges.

The service itself appeared in 20142014, it was createdcreated by Malaysians Bobby OngMalaysians Bobby Ong and TM LeeTM Lee. As the founders of CoinGeckoCoinGecko themselves said, they wanted to increase the level of understanding of the crypto market among its participants.

Ong and Li did not initially intend to track only the market capitalization of assets. They wanted to create more transparent ways to understand how assets are performing. In 20192019, Ong said:

Since 2017, CoinGecko has been publishing a quarterly report on the cryptocurrency market. Anyone can get access to it. In the reports, the authors analyze the movement of rates and track the impact of various events on it.

Since 2017, CoinGecko has been publishing a quarterly report on the cryptocurrency market. Anyone can get access to it. In the reports, the authors analyze the movement of rates and track the impact of various events on it.

In May 20192019, the service introduced Trust Score, a system for evaluating trading pairs and crypto exchanges. So the creators decided to fight unscrupulous sites and unreliable assets. In the same year, the creators of the service entered the Forbes "30 under 30" list.

Overview of CoinGecko Features

Cryptocurrencies

On the platform you can find:

The current exchange rate and market capitalization of the asset;

Historical data on the rate and capitalization;

Place of the asset in the overall rating by capitalization;

On which exchanges and in what volumes is the asset traded;

The total number of coins in circulation;

Latest news about the asset from various sources.

As of the end of October 2021, CoinGecko is available in 21 languages, including Russian. The current rates of digital assets can be viewed in terms of 38 fiat currencies, including the US dollar, euro and Russian ruble.

• The current exchange rate and market capitalization of the asset;
• Historical data on the rate and capitalization;
• Place of the asset in the overall rating by capitalization;
• On which exchanges and in what volumes is the asset traded;
• The total number of coins in circulation;
• Latest news about the asset from various sources.

As of the end of October 2021, CoinGecko is available in 21 languages, including Russian. The current rates of digital assets can be viewed in terms of 38 fiat currencies, including the US dollar, euro and Russian ruble.

Exchanges

DeFi and NFTs

Separately, on CoinGecko, you can see the statistics of exclusively DeFiDeFi tokens. They are also included in the usual top cryptocurrencies, but in the tab you can see how the indicators of such assets correspond to each other. The statistics of decentralized crypto exchanges are also presented there.

Finally, NFTNFT tokens stand apart on the platform. On the page, you can see what NFT tokens are on the market, how much one token costs, and also what is the capitalization of an asset.

Aside from being the largest cryptocurrency exchange globally, Binance has launched a whole ecosystem of functionalities for its users. The Binance network includes the Binance Chain, Binance Smart ChainBinance Smart Chain, Binance AcademyBinance Academy, Trust WalletTrust Wallet and Research projects, which all employ the powers of blockchain technology to bring new-age finance to the world. Binance CoinBinance Coin is an integral part of the successful functioning of many of the Binance sub-projects.

Throughout its history, the company has launched two cryptocurrencies which it developed itself: Binance Coin (BNB), launched June 2017, and Binance Smart Chain (BSC), launched September 20202020. Binance Smart Chain operates using "Proof of Staked Authority", a combination of proof of stake and proof of authority. It has 21 approved validators. As of 20212021, Binance Coin was the cryptocurrency with the third highest market capitalization. Binance allows its users to pay fees on its exchange with Binance Coin.

Micron Technology, Inc. is an American producer of computer memory and computer data storage including dynamic random-access memory, flash memory, and USBUSB flash drives. It is headquartered in Boise, IdahoBoise, Idaho. Its consumer products are marketed under the brands Crucial[3] and Ballistix. Micron and Intel together created IM Flash TechnologiesIM Flash Technologies, which produces NAND flash memory. It owned LexarLexar between 20062006 and 20172017.

Prince of Persia is a video game franchise created by Jordan MechnerJordan Mechner. It is built around a series of action-adventure games focused on various incarnations of the eponymous Prince, set in ancient and medieval Iran.

The first two games in the series, Prince of Persia and Prince of Persia 2: The Shadow and the Flame, were published by BroderbundBroderbund. Prince of Persia 3D, named for being the first installment to use 3D computer graphics, was developed by Red Orb EntertainmentRed Orb Entertainment and published by The Learning Company on PC; The Dreamcast version was developed by Avalanche SoftwareAvalanche Software and published by Mattel InteractiveMattel Interactive. UbisoftUbisoft began developing and publishing entries in the series in 20032003 with Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time.

The franchise also includes a film adaptation based on The Sands of Time, penned in part by Mechner, and released by Walt Disney PicturesWalt Disney Pictures in 20102010; a graphic novel; and the Lego Prince of Persia toyline. Ubisoft's Assassin's Creed franchise is considered to be the spiritual successor to the series.[1][2][3]

Celo is a blockchainblockchain ecosystem focused on increasing cryptocurrencycryptocurrency adoption among smartphone users.

The network also allows for the creation of smart contracts and decentralized applicationsdecentralized applications (DApps) as part of decentralized financedecentralized finance (DeFi). Its mainnet was launched in April 20202020.

The platform has two native tokens. CELO is a proof-of-stakeproof-of-stake (PoS) token used for transaction fees, governance participation and related activities. In future, the platform aims to host various stablecoinsstablecoins, with three, the Celo Dollar (CUSD), the Celo Euro (CEUR) and the Celo Brazilian Real (CREAL) already in use.

Founded in 20182018 and headquartered in San Francisco Bay AreaSan Francisco Bay Area, US, Celo was started by three founders Marek OlszewskiMarek Olszewski, Rene ReinsbergRene Reinsberg, and Sep KamvarSep Kamvar. Also known as cLabscLabs, Celo is a mobile-first platform that makes it easier to access financial dApps and crypto payments. The ecosystem comprises a decentralized PoS blockchain technology stack, a native asset, a stablecoin, and the Celo’s Alliance for Prosperity.

To date, Celo has raised $66.5 million in funding. Its lead investors include PolychainPolychain, DTCPDTCP, and a16z cryptoa16z crypto. Some of Celo’s other investors include Andreesen HorowitzAndreesen Horowitz, Electric CapitalElectric Capital, Greenfield OneGreenfield One, Valor Capital GroupValor Capital Group, and many more. So far Celo has had six funding rounds, with the latest round on April 20th, 2021. In terms of acquisitions, the only acquisition by Celo was in the form of Summa, one of the premier providers of cross-chain architecture and interoperability as a service solution for the blockchain industry.

Apart from its native token, CELO also has two stablecoins: Celo Dollars (cUSD) and Celo Euro (cEUR). As their names suggest, these stablecoins algorithmically follow the US Dollar and Euro. Multiple well-known crypto assets, such as BTCBTC, ETHETH, DAIDAI, and CELO, back these stablecoins. Both of these are available on several exchanges worldwide.

Not only does Celo works well with native mobile dApps, but it is also interoperable with MetaMaskMetaMask and other well-known Ethereum developer tools. It also allows many-to-many cross-chain communications. You can build the bridges you need.

As a platform, the advantages of Celo are multiple and multifaceted. Apart from having a range of platform-native stablecoins, supported fully by multiple ERC-20 tokens ERC-20 tokens, the platform has mobile phone number mapping to public keys for accessible peer-to-peer payments and financial dApps. Its mobile phone synchronization is hyper-efficient with fast syncing for ultralight clients.

Celo was originally founded by a team comprised of people from MITMIT, StanfordStanford, GoogleGoogle, SquareSquare, CircleCircle, VisaVisa, GoDaddyGoDaddy, World BankWorld Bank, Federal Reserve BankFederal Reserve Bank, Harvard UniversityHarvard University, University of Pennsylvania Law SchoolUniversity of Pennsylvania Law School, Cambridge UniversityCambridge University, U.S. Department of JusticeU.S. Department of Justice, Bank Of AmericaBank Of America, Capital OneCapital One, TwitterTwitter, Give Directly, and the Gates Foundation

Kadena was founded on the idea that blockchainblockchain could revolutionize how the world interacts and transacts. But to get to mass adoption, chain technology and the ecosystem connecting it to the business world needed to be reimagined from the ground up. Our founders built a proprietary chain architecture and created the tools to make blockchain work for business – at speed, scale, and energy efficiency previously thought unachievable.

Kadena aims to provide blockchain solutions for enterprises and entrepreneurs, providing the security of BitcoinBitcoin, virtually free gas fees, and high throughput.

In a world where every cryptocurrency is seemingly moving to Proof-Of-StakeProof-Of-Stake to process transactions on their blockchain, Kadena is instead going back to Proof-Of-WorkProof-Of-Work, which it believes is the safest method of securing their blockchain.

However, this comes with scalability issues, best seen by Bitcoin and EthereumEthereum, which both have expensive transactions, and are slow compared to newer blockchains.

However, token emissions schedules can be manually adjusted by Kadena and maybe eventually by a DAO (Decentralized Autonomous OrganisationDecentralized Autonomous Organisation). Investor/contributor allocations will also be fully vested in 20222022, but no clear dates are given.

With US$5.8 million worth of the tokens staked in 20 minutes, it shows a strong community mindset behind DeFiDeFi (Decentralized Finance) and yield farming amongst the Kadena community, which would help increase demand of the token.

Recently, Kadena bridged to the Ethereum Mainnet, allowing $KDA to be wrapped as an ERC-20 tokenERC-20 token. Bridging cross-chain with not only Ethereum, but other Layer 1s such as TerraTerra and PolkadotPolkadot will also allow unlock liquidity that can be used on the Kadena network.

The protocol has also been expanding rapidly to target the latest trends. This includes DeFi, Kadena as a DAO, which will give its token further use in governance, and NFTNFTs. Play-to-Earn games, the latest trend in the crypto space, are al so coming to the network.

Their list of partners goes all the way from big name companies like AmazonAmazon to the latest yield farming protocols such as Terra.

Braintrust is the first decentralizeddecentralized talent network that connects skilled, vetted knowledge workers with the world’s most reputable brands. The community that relies on Braintrust to find work are the same people who own and build it, ensuring the network always serves the needs of its users, instead of a centrally-controlled corporation. Unlike other marketplaces that take 20% to 40% of talent earnings, Braintrust allows talent to keep 100% of earnings and enables clients to make their budgets go further by cutting out the unnecessary middle men. The community expands beyond 50,000 members across 100+ countries. Braintrust partners with global enterprises including NestleNestle, PorschePorsche, AtlassianAtlassian, Goldman SachsGoldman Sachs, and NikeNike. Braintrust is backed by Tiger GlobalTiger Global, Coinbase VenturesCoinbase Ventures, PanteraPantera, and Multicoin CapitalMulticoin Capital along with a contingent of individual investors. It’s time we own it.

How does Braintrust blockchain work?

Solana is a highly functional open source project that banks on blockchain technology’s permission-less nature to provide decentralized financedecentralized finance (DeFi) solutions. While the idea and initial work on the project began in 20172017, Solana was officially launched in March 20202020 by the Solana FoundationSolana Foundation with headquarters in GenevaGeneva, SwitzerlandSwitzerland.

The Solana protocol is designed to facilitate decentralized app decentralized app (D-App) creation. It aims to improve scalability by introducing a proof-of-historyproof-of-history (PoH) consensus combined with the underlying proof-of-stake proof-of-stake (PoS) consensus of the blockchain.

Anatoly YakovenkoAnatoly Yakovenko is the most important person behind Solana. His professional career started at QualcommQualcomm, where he quickly moved up the ranks and became senior staff engineer manager in 20152015. Later on, his professional path shifted, and Yakovenko entered a new position as a software engineer at DropboxDropbox.

In 20172017, Yakovenko started working on a project which would later materialize as Solana. He teamed up with his Qualcomm colleague Greg Fitzgerald, and they founded a project called Solana LabsSolana Labs. Attracting several more former Qualcomm colleagues in the process, the Solana protocol and SOL token were released to the public in 2020.

Solana is known in the cryptocurrencycryptocurrency space because of the incredibly short processing times the blockchain offers. Solana’s hybrid protocol allows for significantly decreased validation times for both transaction and smart contract execution. With lightning-fast processing times, Solana has attracted a lot of institutional interest as well.

Combined with the longstanding professional expertise creators Anatoly Yakovenko and Greg FitzgeraldGreg Fitzgerald bring to the project, Solana is ranked number 7 in the CoinMarketCap ranking as of September 2021.

Solana developers carefully select partners for their ecosystem. Solana has direct support for USDC and USDT "stablecoinsstablecoins", which are heavily used in the decentralized finance space. At the time of writing this publication, only "AlgorandAlgorand" and "EthereumEthereum", in addition to Solana, support both "stablecoins" at once. The market maker of the Solana blockchain-based Serum exchange is Jump Trading, one of the most famous in its field. In addition, the Solana ecosystem is strategically linked to Serum and FTX founder Sam Bankman-FreedSam Bankman-Freed.

CoinMarketCap is a website that provides cryptocurrencycryptocurrency market cap rankings, charts, and more. Their website tracks capitalization of various cryptocurrencies by listing prices, available supply (amount of coins/tokens that is currently in circulation), trade volume over the last 24 hours, or market capitalizations. The website has historical snapshots, currency converter calculator, crypto glossary, API service, events calendar, and offers a watchlist for users to personalize. The website also has a special cryptocurrency price ticker widget for other sites. The website is aggregates prices of cryptocurrencies and calculating price averages that are displayed to users.

Cryptocurrencies can only be purchased on exchanges, that can be both, decentralizeddecentralized or centralized in nature. However, since no exchange is superior to the other, a fair price of a cryptocurrency is the average price it is traded on a range of exchanges. The service is calculating that average price.

As of December 20182018, there are more than 2,000 cryptocurrencies listed on the website. CoinMarketCap provides the current price, the market capitalization, and volume data for every cryptocurrency, as well as historical data and charts. As of early 2018, the site has well beyond 100 million monthly page visits.

TokensoftTokensoft started in 20172017 to streamline and improve the compliance and transfer procedures associated with securities transactions.

Acala is the decentralized financedecentralized finance network and liquidity hub of PolkadotPolkadot. It is a layer-1 smart contract platform that's scalable, EthereumEthereum - compatible, and optimized for DeFiDeFi with built-in liquidity and ready-made financial applications.

With its trustless exchange, decentralized stablecoinstablecoin (aUSD), DOTDOT Liquid Staking (LDOT), and EVM+

Founded in: 20192019

Based in: New ZealandNew Zealand

The Acala Dollar (aUSD) is the built-in programmable primitive of the Acala network. aUSD is the Polkadot-native decentralized stablecoin backed by DOT, DOT derivatives and cross-chain assets like BTCBTC.

Umee is a Cross Chain DeFiDeFi Hub that can collateralize assets on one blockchainblockchain towards borrowing assets on another blockchain blockchain. The platform specializes in allowing staked assets from POSPOS blockchains to be used as collateral for borrowing across blockchains. The platform uses a combination of algorithmically determined interest rates based on market driven conditions. As a cross chain DeFi protocol, Umee will allow a multitude of decentralizeddecentralized finance products.

The initial implementation of this Cross Chain DeFiDeFi protocol will allow the ability to lend and borrow across blockchains. A Universal Capital Facility will contain access to both EthereumEthereum and CosmosCosmos network assets, effectively creating one single capital facility that users can interact with. A key distinguishing of Umee will be the ability to collateralize staked assets for borrowing across blockchainsblockchains as users will have a choice to continue earning stake when engaging in DeFiDeFi. Umee will start with a base case scenario where users are able to lend and borrow assets across blockchains, similar to if they were participating in borrowing and lending activities on Compound or Aave. Concurrently, Umee will allow core functionality where holders of assets on a proof of stake blockchain such as CosmosCosmos are able to collateralize their staked position in order to borrow assets on another blockchain such as EthereumEthereum.

Unlike normal borrowing and lending protocols, Umee allow a key feature that involves stakingstaking assets and using those staked assets as collateral for borrowing assets on another blockchain.

Umee will also implement a mechanism where staking rewards from staked Proof of StakeProof of Stake assets can be immediately liquidated and used to pay the interest from borrowed positions.

Gravity BridgeGravity Bridge (Messaging Bridge) - a libp2p based gossip network. Monitors network chains for token transfers submits and signs messages across a P2P network. Implements a MultiSig schema and threshold signatures to relay approved messages between chains.

This bridge will be an implementation of the CosmosCosmos<>EthereumEthereum two way bridge. This initial bridge architecture will utilize the Althea Gravity Bridge to be able to transfer Cosmos based assets to Ethereum as ERC 20ERC 20 tokens via a lock and mint mechanism. These assets will also be able to be transferred back to the Cosmos ecosystem via a burn and unlock mechanism.

Cosmos Token ModulesCosmos Token Modules - Burn and Mint Factories, Alt_IBC_tokens: Atom, BNB, Osmosis, Akash Cosmos_wrappers (AKA Umee_IBC_Tokens)

Model organismModel organism in geneticsgenetics Drosophila melanogasterDrosophila melanogaster is a species of fly (the taxonomic order Diptera) in the family DrosophilidaeDrosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the "vinegar fly" or "pomace fly". Starting with Charles W. Woodworth'sCharles W. Woodworth's 19011901 proposal of the use of this species as a model organismmodel organism, D. melanogasterD. melanogaster continues to be widely used for biological research in geneticsgenetics, physiologyphysiology, microbial pathogenesismicrobial pathogenesis, and life history evolution. As of 20172017, five Nobel PrizesNobel Prizes have been awarded to drosophilists for their work using the animal.

D. melanogasterD. melanogaster is typically used in research owing to its rapid life cycle, relatively simple genetics with only four pairs of chromosomes, and large number of offspring per generation. It was originally an African species, with all non-African lineages having a common origin. Its geographic range includes all continents, including islands. D. melanogaster is a common pest in homes, restaurants, and other places where food is served.

Flies belonging to the family TephritidaeTephritidae are also called "fruit flies". This can cause confusion, especially in the MediterraneanMediterranean, AustraliaAustralia, and South AfricaSouth Africa, where the Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata is an economic pest.

Wild type fruit flies are yellow-brown, with brick-red eyes and transverse black rings across the abdomenabdomen. The brick-red color of the eyes of the wild type fly are due to two pigments: xanthommatinxanthommatin, which is brown and is derived from tryptophantryptophan, and drosopterins, which are red and are derived from guanosine triphosphateguanosine triphosphate. They exhibit sexual dimorphism; females are about 2.5 mm (0.10 in) long; males are slightly smaller with darker backs. Males are easily distinguished from females based on colour differences, with a distinct black patch at the abdomenabdomen, less noticeable in recently emerged flies, and the sexcombs (a row of dark bristles on the tarsus of the first leg). Furthermore, males have a cluster of spiky hairs (claspers) surrounding the reproducing parts used to attach to the female during mating. Drosophila melanogasterDrosophila melanogaster flies can sense air currents with the hairs on their backs. Their eyes are sensitive to slight differences in light intensity and will instinctively fly away when a shadow or other movement is detected.

D. melanogasterD. melanogaster remains one of the most studied organisms in biological research, particularly in genetics and developmental biology. It is also employed in studies of environmental mutagenesis.

Alfred SturtevantAlfred Sturtevant's Drosophila melanogasterDrosophila melanogaster genetic linkage map: This was the first successful genegene mapping work and provides important evidence for the chromosomechromosome theory of inheritanceinheritance. The map shows the relative positions of allelic characteristics on the second Drosophila chromosome. The distance between the genes (map units) are equal to the percentage of crossing-over events that occurs between different alleles.

D. melanogasterD. melanogaster was among the first organisms used for genetic analysis, and today it is one of the most widely used and genetically best-known of all eukaryotic organisms. All organisms use common genetic systems; therefore, comprehending processes such as transcriptiontranscription and replicationreplication in fruit flies helps in understanding these processes in other eukaryoteseukaryotes, including humanshumans.

Thomas Hunt MorganThomas Hunt Morgan began using fruit flies in experimental studies of heredity at Columbia UniversityColumbia University in 19101910 in a laboratory known as the Fly Room. The Fly Room was cramped with eight desks, each occupied by students and their experiments. They started off experiments using milk bottles to rear the fruit flies and handheld lenses for observing their traits. The lenses were later replaced by microscopes, which enhanced their observations. Morgan and his students eventually elucidated many basic principles of heredity, including sex-linked inheritance, epistasis, multiple alleles, and gene mapping.

D. melanogasterD. melanogaster had historically been used in laboratories to study genetics and patterns of inheritance. However, D. melanogasterD. melanogaster also has importance in environmental mutagenesis research, allowing researchers to study the effects of specific environmental mutagens.

D. melanogaster multiple mutantsmutants (clockwise from top): brown eyes and black cuticle (2 mutationsmutations), cinnabar eyes and wildtype cuticle (1 mutation), sepia eyes and ebony cuticle, vermilion eyes and yellow cuticle, white eyes and yellow cuticle, wildtype eyes and yellow cuticle.

There are many reasons the fruit fly is a popular choice as a model organismmodel organism:

• Its morphologymorphology is easy to identify once anesthetized.
• The mature larva has giant chromosomes in the salivary glands called polytene chromosomes, "puffs", which indicate regions of transcription, hence gene activity. The under-replication of rDNADNA occurs resulting in only 20% of DNADNA compared to the brain. Compare to the 47%, less rDNA in SarcophagaSarcophaga barbata ovaries.
• Genetic transformation techniques have been available since 1987 1987.
• Its complete genome was sequenced and first published in 20002000.

Model organism in genetics Drosophila melanogaster is a species of fly (the taxonomic order Diptera) in the family Drosophilidae. The species is often referred to as the fruit fly or lesser fruit fly, or less commonly the "vinegar fly" or "pomace fly". Starting with Charles W. Woodworth's 1901 proposal of the use of this species as a model organism, D. melanogaster continues to be widely used for biological research in genetics, physiology, microbial pathogenesis, and life history evolution. As of 2017, five Nobel Prizes have been awarded to drosophilists for their work using the animal.

D. melanogaster is typically used in research owing to its rapid life cycle, relatively simple genetics with only four pairs of chromosomes, and large number of offspring per generation. It was originally an African species, with all non-African lineages having a common origin. Its geographic range includes all continents, including islands. D. melanogaster is a common pest in homes, restaurants, and other places where food is served.

Flies belonging to the family Tephritidae are also called "fruit flies". This can cause confusion, especially in the Mediterranean, Australia, and South Africa, where the Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata is an economic pest.

Wild type fruit flies are yellow-brown, with brick-red eyes and transverse black rings across the abdomen. The brick-red color of the eyes of the wild type fly are due to two pigments: xanthommatin, which is brown and is derived from tryptophan, and drosopterins, which are red and are derived from guanosine triphosphate. They exhibit sexual dimorphism; females are about 2.5 mm (0.10 in) long; males are slightly smaller with darker backs. Males are easily distinguished from females based on colour differences, with a distinct black patch at the abdomen, less noticeable in recently emerged flies, and the sexcombs (a row of dark bristles on the tarsus of the first leg). Furthermore, males have a cluster of spiky hairs (claspers) surrounding the reproducing parts used to attach to the female during mating. Drosophila melanogaster flies can sense air currents with the hairs on their backs. Their eyes are sensitive to slight differences in light intensity and will instinctively fly away when a shadow or other movement is detected.

D. melanogaster remains one of the most studied organisms in biological research, particularly in genetics and developmental biology. It is also employed in studies of environmental mutagenesis.

Alfred Sturtevant's Drosophila melanogaster genetic linkage map: This was the first successful gene mapping work and provides important evidence for the chromosome theory of inheritance. The map shows the relative positions of allelic characteristics on the second Drosophila chromosome. The distance between the genes (map units) are equal to the percentage of crossing-over events that occurs between different alleles.

D. melanogaster was among the first organisms used for genetic analysis, and today it is one of the most widely used and genetically best-known of all eukaryotic organisms. All organisms use common genetic systems; therefore, comprehending processes such as transcription and replication in fruit flies helps in understanding these processes in other eukaryotes, including humans.

Thomas Hunt Morgan began using fruit flies in experimental studies of heredity at Columbia University in 1910 in a laboratory known as the Fly Room. The Fly Room was cramped with eight desks, each occupied by students and their experiments. They started off experiments using milk bottles to rear the fruit flies and handheld lenses for observing their traits. The lenses were later replaced by microscopes, which enhanced their observations. Morgan and his students eventually elucidated many basic principles of heredity, including sex-linked inheritance, epistasis, multiple alleles, and gene mapping.

D. melanogaster had historically been used in laboratories to study genetics and patterns of inheritance. However, D. melanogaster also has importance in environmental mutagenesis research, allowing researchers to study the effects of specific environmental mutagens.

D. melanogaster multiple mutants (clockwise from top): brown eyes and black cuticle (2 mutations), cinnabar eyes and wildtype cuticle (1 mutation), sepia eyes and ebony cuticle, vermilion eyes and yellow cuticle, white eyes and yellow cuticle, wildtype eyes and yellow cuticle.

There are many reasons the fruit fly is a popular choice as a model organism:

• Its care and culture require little equipment, space, and expense even when using large cultures.
• It can be safely and readily anesthetized (usually with ether, carbon dioxide gas, by cooling, or with products such as FlyNap).
• Its morphology is easy to identify once anesthetized.
• It has a short generation time (about 10 days at room temperature), so several generations can be studied within a few weeks.
• It has a high fecundity (females lay up to 100 eggs per day, and perhaps 2000 in a lifetime).
• Males and females are readily distinguished, and virgin females are easily isolated, facilitating genetic crossing.
• The mature larva has giant chromosomes in the salivary glands called polytene chromosomes, "puffs", which indicate regions of transcription, hence gene activity. The under-replication of rDNA occurs resulting in only 20% of DNA compared to the brain. Compare to the 47%, less rDNA in Sarcophaga barbata ovaries.
• It has only four pairs of chromosomes – three autosomes, and one pair of sex chromosomes.
• Males do not show meiotic recombination, facilitating genetic studies.
• Recessive lethal "balancer chromosomes" carrying visible genetic markers can be used to keep stocks of lethal alleles in a heterozygous state without recombination due to multiple inversions in the balancer.
• The development of this organism—from fertilized egg to mature adult—is well understood.
• Genetic transformation techniques have been available since 1987.
• Its complete genome was sequenced and first published in 2000.
• Sexual mosaics can be readily produced, providing an additional tool for studying the development and behavior of these flies.

D. Melanogaster which carries the Cy allele (right), hence showing a characteristic phenotype of curly wings in adult flies. Genetic markers are commonly used in Drosophila research, for example within balancer chromosomes or P-element inserts, and most phenotypes are easily identifiable either with the naked eye or under a microscope. In the list of a few common markers below, the allele symbol is followed by the name of the gene affected and a description of its phenotype.

• Cy1: Curly; the wings curve away from the body, flight may be somewhat impaired
• e1: Ebony; black body and wings (heterozygotes are also visibly darker than wild type)
• Sb1: Stubble; bristles are shorter and thicker than wild type
• w1: White; eyes lack pigmentation and appear white
• bw: Brown; eye color determined by various pigments combined.
• y1: Yellow; body pigmentation and wings appear yellow, the fly analog of albinism

Drosophila genes are traditionally named after the phenotype they cause when mutated. For example, the absence of a particular gene in Drosophila will result in a mutant embryo that does not develop a heart. Scientists have thus called this gene tinman, named after the Oz character of the same name. Likewise changes in the Shavenbaby gene cause the loss of dorsal cuticular hairs in Drosophila sechellia larvae. This system of nomenclature results in a wider range of gene names than in other organisms.

• Adh: Alcohol dehydrogenase- Drosophila melanogaster can express the alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) mutation, thereby preventing the breakdown of toxic levels of alcohols into aldehydes and ketones. While ethanol produced by decaying fruit is a natural food source and location for oviposit for Drosophila at low concentrations (<4%), high concentrations of ethanol can induce oxidative stress and alcohol intoxication. Drosophila's fitness is elevated by consuming the low concentration of ethanol. Initial exposure to ethanol causes hyperactivity, followed by incoordination and sedation. Further research has shown that the antioxidant alpha-ketoglutarate may be beneficial in reducing the oxidative stress produced by alcohol consumption. A 2016 study concluded that food supplementation with 10-mM alpha-ketoglutarate decreased Drosophila alcohol sensitivity over time. For the gene that codes for ADH, there are 194 known classic and insertion alleles. Two alleles that are commonly used for experimentation involving ethanol toxicity and response are ADHs (slow) and ADHF (fast). Numerous experiments have concluded that the two alleles account for the differences in enzymatic activity for each. In comparing Adh-F homozygotes (wild-type) and Adh- nulls (homozygous null), research has shown that Adh- nulls have a lower level of tolerance for ethanol, starting the process of intoxication earlier than its counter partner. Other experiments have also concluded that the Adh allele is haplosufficient. Haplosuffiency states that having one functioning allele will be adequate in producing the needed phenotypes for survival. Meaning that flies that were heterozygous for the Adh allele (one copy of the Adh null allele and one copy of the Adh Wild type allele) gave very similar phenotypical alcohol tolerance as the homozygous dominant flies (two copies of the wild type Adh allele). Regardless of genotype, Drosophila show a negative response to exposure to samples with an ethanol content above 5%, which render any tolerance inadequate, resulting in a lethal dosage and a mortality rate of around 70%. Drosophila show many of the same ethanol responses as humans do. Low doses of ethanol produce hyperactivity, moderate doses incoordination, and high doses sedation.".

• b: black- The black mutation was discovered in 1910 by Thomas Hunt Morgan. The black mutation results in a darker colored body, wings, veins, and segments of the fruit fly's leg. This occurs due to the fly's inability to create beta-alanine, a beta amino acid. The phenotypic expression of this mutation varies based on the genotype of the individual; for example, whether the specimen is homozygotic or heterozygotic results in a darker or less dark appearance. This genetic mutation is x-linked recessive.

• bw: brown- The brown eye mutation results from inability to produce or synthesize pteridine (red) pigments, due to a point mutation on chromosome II. When the mutation is homozygous, the pteridine pigments are unable to be synthesized because in the beginning of the pteridine pathway, a defective enzyme is being coded by homozygous recessive genes. In all, mutations in the pteridine pathway produces a darker eye color, hence the resulting color of the biochemical defect in the pteridine pathway being brown.

• m: miniature- One of the first records of the miniature mutation of wings was also made by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1911. He described the wings as having a similar shape as the wild-type phenotype. However, their miniature designation refers to the lengths of their wings, which do not stretch beyond their body and, thus, are notably shorter than the wild-type length. He also noted its inheritance is connected to the sex of the fly and could be paired with the inheritance of other sex-determined traits such as white eyes.The wings may also demonstrate other characteristics deviant from the wild-type wing, such as a duller and cloudier color. Miniature wings are 1.5x shorter than wild-type but are believed to have the same number of cells. This is due to the lack of complete flattening by these cells, making the overall structure of the wing seem shorter in comparison. The pathway of wing expansion is regulated by a signal-receptor pathway, where the neurohormone bursicon interacts with its complementary G protein-coupled receptor; this receptor drives one of the G-protein subunits to signal further enzyme activity and results in development in the wing, such as apoptosis and growth.

• se: sepia- The sepia eye color is brown. Ommochromes (brown) and drosopterins (red) are responsible for the typical eye color of Drosophila melanogaster. These mutations occur on the third chromosome. It is due to the inability of the sepia to manufacture a pteridine enzyme that is responsible for the red pigmentation, that they are unable to display the red coloration of the eyes, and instead have the brown coloration as mentioned earlier. When mated with a wild type, flies with red eyes will be dominant over sepia color eyes. They are then classified as a recessive mutation, and can only result when both chromosomes contain the gene for sepia eyes. Sepia colored eyes are not dependent on the sex of the fly. The Sepia eye color decreases sexual activity in males and influences preference of females.

• v: vermilion- Vermilion eye color compared to a wild type D. melanogaster is a radiant red. Vermilion eye color mutant is sex-linked recessive gene due to its absence of brown eye pigment. The red pigment is located on the X chromosome. The synthesis of brown pigment is due to the process of converting tryptophane to kynurenine, vermilion flies lack the ability to convert these amino acids blocking the production of brown pigment. The reduction in the amount of tryptophan converted to kynurenine in vermilion mutants has been associated with longer life spans in comparison to wild-type flies.

• vg: vestigial- A spontaneous mutation, discovered in 1919 by Thomas Morgan and Calvin Bridges. Vestigial wings are those not fully developed and that have lost function. Since the discovery of the vestigial gene in Drosophila melanogaster, there have been many discoveries of the vestigial gene in other vertebrates and their functions within the vertebrates. The vestigial gene is considered to be one of the most important genes for wing formation, but when it becomes over expressed the issue of ectopic wings begin to form. The vestigial gene acts to regulate the expression of the wing imaginal discs in the embryo and acts with other genes to regulate the development of the wings. A mutated vestigial allele removes an essential sequence of the DNA required for correct development of the wings.

• w: white- Drosophila melanogaster wild type typically expresses a brick red eye color. The white eye mutation in fruit flies is caused due to the absence of two pigments associated with red and brown eye colors; peridines (red) and ommochromes (brown). In January 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan first discovered the white gene and denoted it as w. The discovery of the white-eye mutation by Morgan brought about the beginnings of genetic experimentation and analysis of Drosophila melanogaster. Hunt eventually discovered that the gene followed a similar pattern of inheritance related to the meiotic segregation of the X chromosome. He discovered that the gene was located on the X chromosome with this information. This led to the discovery of sex-linked genes and also to the discovery of other mutations in Drosophila melanogaster. The white-eye mutation leads to several disadvantages in flies, such as a reduced climbing ability, shortened life span, and lowered resistance to stress when compared to wild type flies. Drosophila melanogaster has a series of mating behaviors that enable them to copulate within a given environment and therefore contribute to their fitness. After Morgan's discovery of the white-eye mutation being sex-linked, a study lead by Sturtevant (1915) concluded that white-eyed males were less successful than wild-type males in terms of mating with females. It was found that the greater the density in eye pigmentation, the greater the success in mating for the males of Drosophila melanogaster.

• y: yellow- The yellow gene is a genetic mutation known as Dmel\y within the widely used data base called FlyBase. This mutation can be easily identified by the atypical yellow pigment observed in the cuticle of the adult flies and the mouth pieces of the larva. The y mutation comprises the following phenotypic classes: the mutants that show a complete loss of pigmentation from the cuticle (y-type) and other mutants that show a mosaic pigment pattern with some regions of the cuticle (wild type, y2-type). The role of the yellow gene is diverse and is responsible for changes in behaviour, sex-specific reproductive maturation and, epigenetic reprogramming. The y gene is an ideal gene to study as it is visibly clear when an organisim has this gene, making it easier to understand the passage of DNA to offspring.

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