Great successes were achieved in the development of industry during the reign of Alexander III (1881-1894). Thus, a real technical revolution began in metallurgy. The output of iron, steel, oil, and coal in the period from the mid-1880s to the end of the 1890s increased at a record pace in the entire history of pre-revolutionary industry (for more details, see Industrialization in the Russian Empire). According to a number of authors, this was the result of the protectionist policy of the government, which began shortly after the beginning of the reign of Alexander III:141:289. During the 1880s, there were several increases in import duties, and starting in 1891, a new system of customs tariffs began to operate in the country, the highest in the previous 35-40 years (the tariff of 1891). For most types of imports, duties of the order of 25-30% were established, and for some commodity groups - up to 70% or more :546-553. This contributed not only to industrial growth, but also to the improvement of the foreign trade balance and the strengthening of the state's finances.
A number of measures were aimed at eradicating the shortcomings that have developed on the railways. Uniform railway tariffs were introduced, developed by S. Yu. Witte, which replaced the tariff anarchy that reigned under the previous government. They abandoned the practice of private concessions for the operation of railways, which had spread in the previous reign and led to (as Witte wrote about it) that, with an insignificant total length of roads and poor quality, more than 40 million rubles were annually paid to private companies from the treasury for their maintenance alone. ., which was a "completely impossible situation":183. The construction of new roads was also now carried out predominantly by the state, in order to avoid abuses:256, 305. Partial nationalization of the industry was carried out, as a result of which the number of private railway companies was reduced from 44 to only 6 by the end of the 19th century, and the state's share in railroads increased to 23.5% in 1889 and to 60.5% in 1900. As a result of these measures, the railways ceased to be unprofitable for the treasury and began to make a profit that reached 111 million rubles. in 1892:145, the construction of new lines proceeded at a record pace.
Thanks to these and other measures (conversion of state loans with a reduction in the interest paid on them, the introduction of a state monopoly on the sale of alcoholic beverages, etc.), it was possible to significantly improve the state of public finances. The share of the state budget spent on servicing the public debt has significantly decreased, and the further increase in the debt itself has slowed down. The stabilization of public finances made it possible to begin preparations for the introduction of the gold ruble, which was carried out by the Minister of Finance S. Yu. Witte after the death of Alexander III.
Financial stabilization and the rapid growth of industry were achieved largely thanks to competent and responsible officials appointed by the emperor to the post of Minister of Finance: N. Kh. Bunge (1881-1886), I. A. Vyshnegradsky (1887-1892), S. Yu. Witte (since 1892), as well as thanks to Alexander III himself. In particular, as Witte wrote, the doctrine of free trade was dominant at the turn of the 70s and 80s, which did not allow alternative views: “everyone stood for freedom of trade and believed that this law on free trade was as immutable as the law of the universe, the system customs protectionism was considered the death of the state.
Therefore, supporters of protectionism were persecuted, as, for example, happened with D. I. Mendeleev, who propagated protectionism and was accused of being almost bribed by industrialists, and then was not elected to the academy, deprived of the department, was attacked in the press, etc. Therefore, the transition to protectionism, which met with such strong resistance, according to Witte, “could have been made by one Emperor and, moreover, an Emperor so firm ... as Emperor Alexander III was.”
Significant changes have taken place in the field of taxation. The poll tax was abolished, an apartment tax was introduced; increased expansion and increased indirect taxation began. However, the financial successes of this period were not based on a corresponding rise in the economic well-being of the masses of the population. One of the main sources of state revenues was indirect taxes, the multiplication of which, both in terms of increasing the objects of taxation (new taxes on kerosene, matches), and in terms of raising tax rates (raising the excise tax on drinking, sugar, tobacco), was almost exclusively fiscal in nature.The main burden of these taxes fell on the "lower classes", at the same time, the attempts of the Minister of Finance Bunge to impose taxes on the "tops" provoked opposition from the State Council, which rejected his bill. On the second attempt, he managed to introduce only very low taxes (3-5%) on the profits of joint-stock companies, inheritance and interest income:140.
The negative consequences of the peasant reform of 1861 (landowner cuts, unreasonably high redemption payments), which led to the impoverishment of a significant part of the peasantry, were not eliminated. And the new government measures, in particular, loans from the Peasants' Bank, were not effective and could not help improve the situation of poor peasants. Discrimination in the taxation of peasant lands, which arose in the previous reign, persisted. So, zemstvo taxes and fees for peasants from a tithe of land were 2-4 times higher than for landowners.In total, taking into account redemption payments, peasants had to pay 7-8 times more taxes and fees from a tithe of land in favor of the state than they had to pay from a tithe of landlords' land:224, 251, 274.The decline in the level of people's well-being was expressed both in the unceasing growth of arrears and in the horrendous misfortunes of the peasant population during the years of crop failure. Especially strong was the famine of 1891-1892, called by contemporaries "all-Russian ruin":434. At the same time, the economic situation of factory workers in his reign improved:261.
