Ilvina Mustafina

We utilize the innovative learn-to-earn & NFT-powered affiliate model to empower a new economy and build an Island-verse for web 3.0 content & marketing. This article is to help you understand in more detail what Islander brings to the market, and how you can utilize its functionalities to elevate your marketing efforts.

For Crypto Projects and Enterprises

Island Lord, Boat Owner, Island Residents Model

Traditionally, crypto projects attract their supporters through digital marketing activities such as SEO, SEM, and advertising. Crypto enthusiasts then get more involved by reading whitepapers, participating in Q&A sessions, getting cross references from peers and other sources, etc. Once feeling informed enough, they will invest in the project by buying the project’s tokens.

One of the most used methods is to use influencers within the crypto community. Influencers introduce the project to their own followers, thus attracting more investors to the project, and in return, they receive a commission with the project’s tokens.

This whole process of getting users on board, getting them to understand the project, waiting for their feedback, and letting them take the first action is often long and cumbersome. Islander found a way to make it easier for all parties involved with the use of gamification.

In Islander’s own words, the crypto world can be seen as thousands and thousands of separated islands, with each island representing a standalone crypto project and the project owners taking on the role of “Island Lords”.

Whether a crypto project is successful or not depends on how many supporters it can get and how frequently its product and token are used. In Islander, we call these crypto adopters “Residents”. Sometimes the residents will find their own way to get to the island, sometimes they will need a boat. And the Boat Owner here represents an influencer in the real world.

How it works

To help their islands thrive, Island Lords will create Bounties to attract visitors. Bounties are different activities that are tied to the crypto project. Let’s take an example:

X is a wargame on blockchain that wants to build its community on Islander. In this case, X will be an Island Lord. X then creates a set of bounties with rewards in their token. A bounty (quest) can work as one or some of the following activities:

Connect wallet in X

Write an in-depth guide for a race

Share that guide to your social media profile

Complete a quiz to understand about the world of X

Add liquidity or trade X’s tokens.

Once the bounty is completed by a user on Islander, he will get rewarded with X’s tokens. Influencers, on the other hand, will be rewarded with tokens in a different way. Their reward will be proportional to the amount of residents they are able to bring to the island.

Islander helps crypto projects utilize their marketing efforts in an innovative way, through permission-less affiliate marketing powered by Non-fungible tokens (NFTs).

Create and manage your assets

Project Owners can create unique bounties or use bounty templates provided by Islander.

For independent content creators

Merchants in Islander World

Islander is not meant exclusively for crypto projects, its model can also be applied to content publishing. We call content creators “Merchants” in Islander, and instead of giving out “bounties”, they can use cryptocurrencies (including ISA) to create NFT tickets in the form of different items (clothes, accessories, gadgets, etc.). Users are then able to buy these items to get access to exclusive content created by Merchants.

How it works

Tony is a young novelist who is struggling to find his first publisher. He wants to create a blog so he can upload several chapters of his book and let visitors read for free. Later, he plans to start charging real money for new chapters.

This old way of publishing your content needs a lot of time to have results. Even with modern blogging platforms such as Blogspot, Wix, or Wordpress, creating a site and monetizing it can still take years to do.

Islander will make it more fun and more interactive for followers to support their content creators. In Tony’s case, he can put his novel chapters behind a paywall, then allow readers to unlock those chapters using items created by him. Here, your own imagination is the limit. Islander will provide a toolkit for content creators to easily create, track, and manage their content as well as their created items.

Furthermore, this allows users to trade with each other within Islander across multiple different projects, from crypto project owners to influencers and content creators. With the power of a decentralized market, Islander will be able to develop wish-list and auction features in the future.

Ranking that matters

Almost all games have a leaderboard, and Islander is no exception. With the help of transparent crypto transactions, the Islander Leaderboard will offer fair competition for everyone.

Islander will have different leaderboards for different parts of the platform. In our initial release, they are:

Island Lord Leaderboard: For Islands (crypto projects) that have the most residents

Boat Owner Leaderboard: For Boat Owners (influencers) who bring the most residents to different Islands

Resident Leaderboard: For residents who complete the most quests on Islander

There will be monthly, quarterly, and yearly leaderboards with different rewards introduced and developed further in the future.

The Islander World

There are three big components of the Islander World. They are:

The Islander:

Community Building & Affiliate Marketing platform for crypto projects & enterprises

Content platform for content creators & influencers

The Island Market:

Marketplace for buying/selling tickets to access exclusive digital content

Crowdfunding platform connecting individual creators and backers

The Island Lounge:

Space for organizing events

Open area to connect people from different parts of the Islander World

These three components will complement each other to keep the Islander World active. With constant activities generated by users and seamless, transparent transactions happening all the time, we expect a very high number of concurrent users around the clock.

In the future, we will expand the Islander World into a universe called The Island-verse. This is to push the idea of using NFTs in Affiliate Marketing further, making it available to other areas such as art and music, sport and sport betting, video games, etc. We also want influencers and content creators on other platforms to have means to spread their works easier.

Audi

The origins of the company are complex, going back to the early 20th century and the initial enterprises (Horch and the Audiwerke) founded by engineer August Horch; and two other manufacturers (DKW and Wanderer), leading to the foundation of Auto Union in 1932. The modern era of Audi essentially began in the 1960s when Auto Union was acquired by Volkswagen from Daimler-Benz.[10] After relaunching the Audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the Audi F103 series, Volkswagen merged Auto Union with NSU Motorenwerke in 1969, thus creating the present-day form of the company.

The company name is based on the Latin translation of the surname of the founder, August Horch. Horch, meaning "listen" in German, becomes audi in Latin. The four rings of the Audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create Audi's predecessor company, Auto Union. Audi's slogan is Vorsprung durch Technik, meaning "Being Ahead through Technology".[11] Audi, along with fellow German marques BMW and Mercedes-Benz, is among the best-selling luxury automobile brands in the world.[12]

Contents

1 History

1.1 Birth of the company and its name

1.2 The merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings

1.3 Post-World War II

1.4 New Auto Union unit

1.5 Modern era

1.6 Audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegations

1.7 Model introductions

1.8 Audi AG today

2 Technology

2.1 Audi AI

2.2 Bodyshells

2.3 Space frame

2.4 Drivetrains

2.5 LED daytime running lights

2.6 Multi Media Interface

2.7 Synthetic fuels

2.8 Logistics

3 Models

3.1 Current model range

3.2 S and RS models

3.3 Electric vehicles

3.4 Self-driving cars

4 Production figures

5 Motorsport

5.1 Rallying

5.2 In the United States

5.3 Touring cars

5.4 24 Hours of Le Mans

5.5 American Le Mans Series

5.6 European Le Mans Series

5.7 World Endurance Championship

5.8 Formula E

5.9 Formula One

6 Marketing

6.1 Branding

6.2 Sponsorships

6.3 Multitronic campaign

6.4 Audi TDI

6.5 Audi e-tron

6.6 In video games

7 See also

8 Notes

9 References

10 External links

History

Birth of the company and its name

Automobile company Wanderer was originally established in 1885, later becoming a branch of Audi AG. Another company, NSU, which also later merged into Audi, was founded during this time, and later supplied the chassis for Gottlieb Daimler's four-wheeler.[13]

On 14 November 1899, August Horch (1868–1951) established the company A. Horch & Cie. in the Ehrenfeld district of Cologne. In 1902, he moved with his company to Reichenbach im Vogtland. On 10 May 1904, he founded the August Horch & Cie. Motorwagenwerke AG, a joint-stock company in Zwickau (State of Saxony).

After troubles with Horch chief financial officer, August Horch left Motorwagenwerke and founded in Zwickau on 16 July 1909, his second company, the August Horch Automobilwerke GmbH. His former partners sued him for trademark infringement. The German Reichsgericht (Supreme Court) in Leipzig,[14] eventually determined that the Horch brand belonged to his former company.[15]

1923 Audi Type E

Since August Horch was prohibited from using "Horch" as a trade name in his new car business, he called a meeting with close business friends, Paul and Franz Fikentscher from Zwickau. At the apartment of Franz Fikentscher, they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company. During this meeting, Franz's son was quietly studying Latin in a corner of the room. Several times he looked like he was on the verge of saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working, until he finally blurted out, "Father – audiatur et altera pars... wouldn't it be a good idea to call it audi instead of horch?"[16] "Horch!" in German means "Hark!" or "hear", which is "Audi" in the singular imperative form of "audire" – "to listen" – in Latin. The idea was enthusiastically accepted by everyone attending the meeting.[17] On 25 April 1910 the Audi Automobilwerke GmbH Zwickau (from 1915 on Audiwerke AG Zwickau) was entered in the company's register of Zwickau registration court.

The first Audi automobile, the Audi Type A 10/22 hp (16 kW) Sport-Phaeton, was produced in the same year,[18] followed by the successor Type B 10/28PS in the same year.[19]

Audi started with a 2,612 cc inline-four engine model Type A, followed by a 3,564 cc model, as well as 4,680 cc and 5,720 cc models. These cars were successful even in sporting events. The first six-cylinder model Type M, 4,655 cc appeared in 1924.[20]

August Horch left the Audiwerke in 1920 for a high position at the ministry of transport, but he was still involved with Audi as a member of the board of trustees. In September 1921, Audi became the first German car manufacturer to present a production car, the Audi Type K, with left-handed drive.[21] Left-hand drive spread and established dominance during the 1920s because it provided a better view of oncoming traffic, making overtaking safer[21] when driving on the right.

The merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings

Main article: Auto Union

In August 1928, Jørgen Rasmussen, the owner of Dampf-Kraft-Wagen (DKW), acquired the majority of shares in Audiwerke AG.[22] In the same year, Rasmussen bought the remains of the U.S. automobile manufacturer Rickenbacker, including the manufacturing equipment for 8-cylinder engines. These engines were used in Audi Zwickau and Audi Dresden models that were launched in 1929. At the same time, 6-cylinder and 4-cylinder (the "four" with a Peugeot engine) models were manufactured. Audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork.

In 1932, Audi merged with Horch, DKW, and Wanderer, to form Auto Union AG, Chemnitz. It was during this period that the company offered the Audi Front that became the first European car to combine a six-cylinder engine with front-wheel drive. It used a power train shared with the Wanderer, but turned 180 degrees, so that the drive shaft faced the front.

Before World War II, Auto Union used the four interlinked rings that make up the Audi badge today, representing these four brands. However, this badge was used only on Auto Union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems. The technological development became more and more concentrated and some Audi models were propelled by Horch- or Wanderer-built engines.

Reflecting the economic pressures of the time, Auto Union concentrated increasingly on smaller cars through the 1930s, so that by 1938 the company's DKW brand accounted for 17.9% of the German car market, while Audi held only 0.1%. After the final few Audis were delivered in 1939 the "Audi" name disappeared completely from the new car market for more than two decades.

Post-World War II

IFA F9

Like most German manufacturing, at the onset of World War II the Auto Union plants were retooled for military production, and were a target for allied bombing during the war which left them damaged.

Overrun by the Soviet Army in 1945, on the orders of the Soviet Union military administration the factories were dismantled as part of war reparations.[23] Following this, the company's entire assets were expropriated without compensation.[23] On 17 August 1948, Auto Union AG of Chemnitz was deleted from the commercial register.[22] These actions had the effect of liquidating Germany's Auto Union AG. The remains of the Audi plant of Zwickau became the VEB (for "People Owned Enterprise") Automobilwerk Zwickau [de] or AWZ (in English: Automobile Works Zwickau).

With no prospect of continuing production in Soviet-controlled East Germany, Auto Union executives began the process of relocating what was left of the company to West Germany. A site was chosen in Ingolstadt, Bavaria, to start a spare parts operation in late 1945, which would eventually serve as the headquarters of the reformed Auto Union in 1949.

The former Audi factory in Zwickau restarted assembly of the pre-war models in 1949. These DKW models were renamed to IFA F8 and IFA F9 and were similar to the West German versions. West and East German models were equipped with the traditional and renowned DKW two-stroke engines. The Zwickau plant manufactured the infamous Trabant until 1991, when it came under Volkswagen control—effectively bringing it under the same umbrella as Audi since 1945.

New Auto Union unit

A new West German headquartered Auto Union was launched in Ingolstadt with loans from the Bavarian state government and Marshall Plan aid.[23] The reformed company was launched 3 September 1949 and continued DKW's tradition of producing front-wheel drive vehicles with two-stroke engines.[23] This included production of a small but sturdy 125 cc motorcycle and a DKW delivery van, the DKW F89 L at Ingolstadt. The Ingolstadt site was large, consisting of an extensive complex of formerly military buildings which was suitable for administration as well as vehicle warehousing and distribution, but at this stage there was at Ingolstadt no dedicated plant suitable for mass production of automobiles: for manufacturing the company's first post-war mass-market passenger car plant capacity in Düsseldorf was rented from Rheinmetall-Borsig. It was only ten years later, after the company had attracted an investor, when funds became available for construction of major car plant at the Ingolstadt head office site.

In 1958, in response to pressure from Friedrich Flick, then the company's largest single shareholder,[24] Daimler-Benz took an 87% holding in the Auto Union company, and this was increased to a 100% holding in 1959. However, small two-stroke cars were not the focus of Daimler-Benz's interests, and while the early 1960s saw major investment in new Mercedes models and in a state of the art factory for Auto Union's, the company's aging model range at this time did not benefit from the economic boom of the early 1960s to the same extent as competitor manufacturers such as Volkswagen and Opel. The decision to dispose of the Auto Union business was based on its lack of profitability.[25] Ironically, by the time they sold the business, it also included a large new factory and near production-ready modern four-stroke engine, which would enable the Auto Union business, under a new owner, to embark on a period of profitable growth, now producing not Auto Unions or DKWs, but using the "Audi" name, resurrected in 1965 after a 25-year gap.

In 1964, Volkswagen acquired a 50% holding in the business, which included the new factory in Ingolstadt, the DKW and Audi brands along with the rights to the new engine design which had been funded by Daimler-Benz, who in return retained the dormant Horch trademark and the Düsseldorf factory which became a Mercedes-Benz van assembly plant. Eighteen months later, Volkswagen bought complete control of Ingolstadt, and by 1966 were using the spare capacity of the Ingolstadt plant to assemble an additional 60,000 Volkswagen Beetles per year.[26] Two-stroke engines became less popular during the 1960s as customers were more attracted to the smoother four-stroke engines. In September 1965, the DKW F102 was fitted with a four-stroke engine and a facelift for the car's front and rear. Volkswagen dumped the DKW brand because of its associations with two-stroke technology, and having classified the model internally as the F103, sold it simply as the "Audi". Later developments of the model were named after their horsepower ratings and sold as the Audi 60, 75, 80, and Super 90, selling until 1972. Initially, Volkswagen was hostile to the idea of Auto Union as a standalone entity producing its own models having acquired the company merely to boost its own production capacity through the Ingolstadt assembly plant – to the point where Volkswagen executives ordered that the Auto Union name and flags bearing the four rings were removed from the factory buildings. Then VW chief Heinz Nordhoff explicitly forbade Auto Union from any further product development. Fearing that Volkswagen had no long-term ambition for the Audi brand, Auto Union engineers under the leadership of Ludwig Kraus developed the first Audi 100 in secret, without Nordhoff's knowledge. When presented with a finished prototype, Nordhoff was so impressed he authorised the car for production, which when launched in 1968, went on to be a huge success. With this, the resurrection of the Audi brand was now complete, this being followed by the first generation Audi 80 in 1972, which would in turn provide a template for VW's new front-wheel-drive water-cooled range which debuted from the mid-1970s onward.

Audi 80 assembly line in Wolfsburg, 1973

In 1969, Auto Union merged with NSU, based in Neckarsulm, near Stuttgart. In the 1950s, NSU had been the world's largest manufacturer of motorcycles, but had moved on to produce small cars like the NSU Prinz, the TT and TTS versions of which are still popular as vintage race cars. NSU then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of Felix Wankel. In 1967, the new NSU Ro 80 was a car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics, light weight, and safety. However, teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of NSU. The Neckarsulm plant is now used to produce the larger Audi models A6 and A8. The Neckarsulm factory is also home of the "quattro GmbH" (from November 2016 "Audi Sport GmbH"), a subsidiary responsible for development and production of Audi high-performance models: the R8 and the RS model range.

Modern era

Participation certificate of the Audi NSU Auto Union AG, issued August 1969

The new merged company was incorporated on 1 January 1969 and was known as Audi NSU Auto Union AG, with its headquarters at NSU's Neckarsulm plant, and saw the emergence of Audi as a separate brand for the first time since the pre-war era. Volkswagen introduced the Audi brand to the United States for the 1970 model year. That same year, the mid-sized car that NSU had been working on, the K70, originally intended to slot between the rear-engined Prinz models and the futuristic NSU Ro 80, was instead launched as a Volkswagen.

After the launch of the Audi 100 of 1968, the Audi 80/Fox (which formed the basis for the 1973 Volkswagen Passat) followed in 1972 and the Audi 50 (later rebadged as the Volkswagen Polo) in 1974. The Audi 50 was a seminal design because it was the first incarnation of the Golf/Polo concept, one that led to a hugely successful world car. Ultimately, the Audi 80 and 100 (progenitors of the A4 and A6, respectively) became the company's biggest sellers, whilst little investment was made in the fading NSU range; the Prinz models were dropped in 1973 whilst the fatally flawed NSU Ro80 went out of production in 1977, spelling the effective end of the NSU brand. Production of the Audi 100 had been steadily moved from Ingolstadt to Neckarsulm as the 1970s had progressed, and by the appearance of the second generation C2 version in 1976, all production was now at the former NSU plant. Neckarsulm from that point onward would produce Audi's higher-end models.

The Audi image at this time was a conservative one, and so, a proposal from chassis engineer Jörg Bensinger[27] was accepted to develop the four-wheel drive technology in Volkswagen's Iltis military vehicle for an Audi performance car and rally racing car. The performance car, introduced in 1980, was named the "Audi Quattro", a turbocharged coupé which was also the first German large-scale production vehicle to feature permanent all-wheel drive through a centre differential. Commonly referred to as the "Ur-Quattro" (the "Ur-" prefix is a German augmentative used, in this case, to mean "original" and is also applied to the first generation of Audi's S4 and S6 Sport Saloons, as in "UrS4" and "UrS6"), few of these vehicles were produced (all hand-built by a single team), but the model was a great success in rallying. Prominent wins proved the viability of all-wheel-drive racecars, and the Audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology.

In 1985, with the Auto Union and NSU brands effectively dead, the company's official name was now shortened to simply Audi AG. At the same time the company's headquarters moved back to Ingolstadt and two new wholly owned subsidiaries; Auto Union GmbH and NSU GmbH, were formed to own and manage the historical trademarks and intellectual property of the original constituent companies (the exception being Horch, which had been retained by Daimler-Benz after the VW takeover), and to operate Audi's heritage operations.

Audi Quattro

In 1986, as the Passat-based Audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of "grandfather's car" image, the type 89 was introduced. This completely new development sold extremely well. However, its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine, and its base package was quite spartan (even the passenger-side mirror was an option.) In 1987, Audi put forward a new and very elegant Audi 90, which had a much superior set of standard features. In the early 1990s, sales began to slump for the Audi 80 series, and some basic construction problems started to surface.

In the early part of the 21st century, Audi set forth on a German racetrack to claim and maintain several world records, such as top speed endurance. This effort was in-line with the company's heritage from the 1930s racing era Silver Arrows.

Through the early 1990s, Audi began to shift its target market upscale to compete against German automakers Mercedes-Benz and BMW. This began with the release of the Audi V8 in 1990. It was essentially a new engine fitted to the Audi 100/200, but with noticeable bodywork differences. Most obvious was the new grille that was now incorporated in the bonnet.

By 1991, Audi had the four-cylinder Audi 80, the 5-cylinder Audi 90 and Audi 100, the turbocharged Audi 200 and the Audi V8. There was also a coupé version of the 80/90 with both four- and five-cylinder engines.

Although the five-cylinder engine was a successful and robust powerplant, it was still a little too different for the target market. With the introduction of an all-new Audi 100 in 1992, Audi introduced a 2.8L V6 engine. This engine was also fitted to a face-lifted Audi 80 (all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the USA), giving this model a choice of four-, five-, and six-cylinder engines, in saloon, coupé and convertible body styles.

The five-cylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice; however, a turbocharged 220 PS (160 kW; 220 hp) version remained. The engine, initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20V of 1991, was a derivative of the engine fitted to the Sport Quattro. It was fitted to the Audi Coupé, named the S2, and also to the Audi 100 body, and named the S4. These two models were the beginning of the mass-produced S series of performance cars.

Audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegations

Sales in the United States fell after a series of recalls from 1982 to 1987 of Audi 5000 models[28] associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths and 700 accidents.[28] At the time, NHTSA was investigating 50 car models from 20 manufacturers for sudden surges of power.[29]

A 60 Minutes report aired 23 November 1986,[30] featuring interviews with six people who had sued Audi after reporting unintended acceleration, showing an Audi 5000 ostensibly suffering a problem when the brake pedal was pushed.[31][32] Subsequent investigation revealed that 60 Minutes had engineered the failure – fitting a canister of compressed air on the passenger-side floor, linked via a hose to a hole drilled into the transmission.[30]

Audi 100 C3, sold as the Audi 5000 in the U.S.

Audi contended, prior to findings by outside investigators,[29] that the problems were caused by driver error, specifically pedal misapplication.[29] Subsequently, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases, including all the ones that prompted the 60 Minutes report, were caused by driver error such as confusion of pedals.[33] CBS did not acknowledge the test results of involved government agencies, but did acknowledge the similar results of another study.[31]

In a review study published in 2012, NHTSA summarized its past findings about the Audi unintended acceleration problems: "Once an unintended acceleration had begun, in the Audi 5000, due to a failure in the idle-stabilizer system (producing an initial acceleration of 0.3g), pedal misapplication resulting from panic, confusion, or unfamiliarity with the Audi 5000 contributed to the severity of the incident."[34]

This summary is consistent with the conclusions of NHTSA's most technical analysis at the time: "Audi idle-stabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 0.3g [which is similar in magnitude to an emergency stop in a subway car]. These accelerations could not be the sole cause of [(long-duration) sudden acceleration incidents (SAI)], but might have triggered some SAIs by startling the driver.[35] The defective idle-stabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control. Significantly: multiple "intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded ... and [were also observed and] reported by Transport Canada."[35]

With a series of recall campaigns, Audi made several modifications; the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatic-transmission models.[28] Later repairs, of 250,000 cars dating back to 1978, added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park.[28] A legacy of the Audi 5000 and other reported cases of sudden unintended acceleration are intricate gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent shifting into forward or reverse. It is unclear how the defects in the idle-stabilization system were addressed.

Audi's U.S. sales, which had reached 74,061 in 1985, dropped to 12,283 in 1991 and remained level for three years,[28] – with resale values falling dramatically.[36] Audi subsequently offered increased warranty protection[36] and renamed the affected models – with the 5000 becoming the 100 and 200 in 1989[29] – and reached the same sales levels again only by model year 2000.[28]

A 2010 BusinessWeek article – outlining possible parallels between Audi's experience and 2009–2010 Toyota vehicle recalls – noted a class-action lawsuit filed in 1987 by about 7,500 Audi 5000-model owners remains unsettled and remains contested in Chicago's Cook County after appeals at the Illinois state and U.S. federal levels.[28]

Model introductions

In the mid-to-late 1990s, Audi introduced new technologies including the use of aluminium construction. Produced from 1999 to 2005, the Audi A2 was a futuristic super mini, born from the Al2 concept, with many features that helped regain consumer confidence, like the aluminium space frame, which was a first in production car design. In the A2 Audi further expanded their TDI technology through the use of frugal three-cylinder engines. The A2 was extremely aerodynamic and was designed around a wind tunnel. The Audi A2 was criticised for its high price and was never really a sales success but it planted Audi as a cutting-edge manufacturer. The model, a Mercedes-Benz A-Class competitor, sold relatively well in Europe. However, the A2 was discontinued in 2005 and Audi decided not to develop an immediate replacement.

The next major model change came in 1995 when the Audi A4 replaced the Audi 80. The new nomenclature scheme was applied to the Audi 100 to become the Audi A6 (with a minor facelift). This also meant the S4 became the S6 and a new S4 was introduced in the A4 body. The S2 was discontinued. The Audi Cabriolet continued on (based on the Audi 80 platform) until 1999, gaining the engine upgrades along the way. A new A3 hatchback model (sharing the Volkswagen Golf Mk4's platform) was introduced to the range in 1996, and the radical Audi TT coupé and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings.

The engines available throughout the range were now a 1.4 L, 1.6 L and 1.8 L four-cylinder, 1.8 L four-cylinder turbo, 2.6 L and 2.8 L V6, 2.2 L turbo-charged five-cylinder and the 4.2 L V8 engine. The V6s were replaced by new 2.4 L and 2.8 L 30V V6s in 1998, with marked improvement in power, torque and smoothness. Further engines were added along the way, including a 3.7 L V8 and 6.0 L W12 engine for the A8.

Audi AG today

Audi's sales grew strongly in the 2000s, with deliveries to customers increasing from 653,000 in 2000 to 1,003,000 in 2008. The largest sales increases came from Eastern Europe (+19.3%), Africa (+17.2%) and the Middle East (+58.5%). China in particular has become a key market, representing 108,000 out of 705,000 cars delivered in the first three quarters of 2009. One factor for its popularity in China is that Audis have become the car of choice for purchase by the Chinese government for officials, and purchases by the government are responsible for 20% of its sales in China.[37] As of late 2009, Audi's operating profit of €1.17 billion ($1.85 billion) made it the biggest contributor to parent Volkswagen Group's nine-month operating profit of €1.5 billion, while the other marques in Group such as Bentley and SEAT had suffered considerable losses.[38] May 2011 saw record sales for Audi of America with the new Audi A7 and Audi A3 TDI Clean Diesel.[39] In May 2012, Audi reported a 10% increase in its sales—from 408 units to 480 in the last year alone.[40]

Audi manufactures vehicles in seven plants around the world, some of which are shared with other VW Group marques[41] although many sub-assemblies such as engines and transmissions are manufactured within other Volkswagen Group plants.

Audi's two principal assembly plants are:

Ingolstadt, opened by Auto Union in 1964 (A3, A4, A5, Q5)

Neckarsulm, acquired from NSU in 1969 (A4, A6, A7, A8, R8, and all RS variants)

Outside of Germany, Audi produces vehicles at:

Aurangabad, India, since 2006

Bratislava, Slovakia, shared with Volkswagen, SEAT, Škoda and Porsche (Q7 and Q8)

Brussels, Belgium, acquired from Volkswagen in 2007 (e-tron)

Changchun, China, since 1995

Győr, Hungary (TT and some A3 variants)

Jakarta, Indonesia, since 2011

Martorell, Spain, shared with SEAT and Volkswagen (A1)

San José Chiapa, Mexico (2nd gen Q5)

In September 2012, Audi announced the construction of its first North American manufacturing plant in Puebla, Mexico. This plant became operative in 2016 and produces the second generation Q5.[42]

From 2002 up to 2003, Audi headed the Audi Brand Group, a subdivision of the Volkswagen Group's Automotive Division consisting of Audi, Lamborghini and SEAT, which was focused on sporty values, with the marques' product vehicles and performance being under the higher responsibility of the Audi brand.

In January 2014, Audi, along with the Wireless Power Consortium, operated a booth which demonstrated a phone compartment using the Qi open interface standard at the Consumer Electronics Show (CES).[43] In May, most of the Audi dealers in the UK falsely claimed that the Audi A7, A8, and R8 were Euro NCAP safety tested, all achieving five out of five stars. In fact none were tested.[44]

In 2015, Audi admitted that at least 2.1 million Audi cars had been involved in the Volkswagen emissions testing scandal in which software installed in the cars manipulated emissions data to fool regulators and allow the cars to pollute at higher than government-mandated levels. The A1, A3, A4, A5, A6, TT, Q3 and Q5 models were implicated in the scandal.[45] Audi promised to quickly find a technical solution and upgrade the cars so they can function within emissions regulations.[46] Ulrich Hackenberg, the head of research and development at Audi, was suspended in relation to the scandal.[47] Despite widespread media coverage about the scandal through the month of September, Audi reported that U.S. sales for the month had increased by 16.2%.[48] Audi's parent company Volkswagen announced on 18 June 2018 that Audi chief executive Rupert Stadler had been arrested.[49]

In November 2015, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implicated the 3-liter diesel engine versions of the 2016 Audi A6 Quattro, A7 Quattro, A8, A8L and the Q5 as further models that had emissions regulation defeat-device software installed.[50] Thus, these models emitted nitrogen oxide at up to nine times the legal limit when the car detected that it was not hooked up to emissions testing equipment.[51]

In November 2016, Audi expressed an intention to establish an assembly factory in Pakistan, with the company's local partner acquiring land for a plant in Korangi Creek Industrial Park in Karachi. Approval of the plan would lead to an investment of $30 million in the new plant.[52] Audi planned to cut 9,500 jobs in Germany starting from 2020 till 2025 to fund electric vehicles and digital working.[53]

In February 2020, Volkswagen AG announced that it plans to take over all Audi shares it does not own (totalling 0.36%) via a squeeze-out according to German stock corporation law, thus making Audi a fully owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group.[54] This change took effect from 16 November 2020, when Audi became a wholly owned subsidiary of the Volkswagen Group.[55]

In January 2021, Audi announced that it is planning to sell 1 million vehicles in China in 2023, comparing to 726,000 vehicles in 2020.[56]

Technology

Audi AI

Audi AI is a driver assist feature offered by Audi. The company's stated intent is to offer fully autonomous driving at a future time, acknowledging that legal, regulatory and technical hurdles must be overcome to achieve this goal. On 4 June 2017, Audi stated that its new A8 will be fully self-driving for speeds up to 60 km/h using its Audi AI. Contrary to other cars, the driver will not have to do safety checks such as touching the steering wheel every 15 seconds to use this feature. The Audi A8 will therefore be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving, meaning that the driver can safely turn their attention away from driving tasks, e.g. the driver can text or watch a movie. Audi will also be the first manufacturer to use a 3D Lidar system in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors for their AI.[57][58]

Bodyshells

Audi produces 100% galvanised cars to prevent corrosion,[59] and was the first mass-market vehicle to do so, following introduction of the process by Porsche, c. 1975. Along with other precautionary measures, the full-body zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust. The body's resulting durability even surpassed Audi's own expectations, causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10-year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years (except for aluminium bodies which do not rust).[60]

Space frame

The Audi R8 uses Audi Space Frame technology

Audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid-1990s and continues to pursue new technology and high performance. An all-aluminium car was brought forward by Audi, and in 1994 the Audi A8 was launched, which introduced aluminium space frame technology (called Audi Space Frame or ASF) which saves weight and improves torsion rigidity compared to a conventional steel frame. Prior to that effort, Audi used examples of the Type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminium as test-beds for the technique. The disadvantage of the aluminium frame is that it is very expensive to repair and requires a specialized aluminium bodyshop.[61] The weight reduction is somewhat offset by the quattro four-wheel drive system which is standard in most markets. Nonetheless, the A8 is usually the lightest all-wheel drive car in the full-size luxury segment, also having best-in-class fuel economy.[62] The Audi A2, Audi TT and Audi R8 also use Audi Space Frame designs.

Drivetrains

Layout

For most of its lineup (excluding the A3, A1, and TT models), Audi has not adopted the transverse engine layout which is typically found in economy cars (such as Peugeot and Citroën), since that would limit the type and power of engines that can be installed. To be able to mount powerful engines (such as a V8 engine in the Audi S4 and Audi RS4, as well as the W12 engine in the Audi A8L W12), Audi has usually engineered its more expensive cars with a longitudinally front-mounted engine, in an "overhung" position, over the front wheels in front of the axle line - this layout dates back to the DKW and Auto Union saloons from the 1950s. But while this allows for the easy adoption of all-wheel drive, it goes against the ideal 50:50 weight distribution.

In all its post Volkswagen-era models, Audi has firmly refused to adopt the traditional rear-wheel drive layout favored by its two archrivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW, favoring either front-wheel drive or all-wheel drive. The majority of Audi's lineup in the United States features all-wheel drive standard on most of its expensive vehicles (only the entry-level trims of the A4 and A6 are available with front-wheel drive), in contrast to Mercedes-Benz and BMW whose lineup treats all-wheel drive as an option. BMW did not offer all-wheel drive on its V8-powered cars (as opposed to crossover SUVs) until the 2010 BMW 7 Series and 2011 BMW 5 Series, while the Audi A8 has had all-wheel drive available/standard since the 1990s. Regarding high-performance variants, Audi S and RS models have always had all-wheel drive, unlike their direct rivals from BMW M and Mercedes-AMG whose cars are rear-wheel drive only (although their performance crossover SUVs are all-wheel drive).

Audi has recently applied the quattro badge to models such as the A3 and TT which do not use the Torsen-based system as in prior years with a mechanical center differential, but with the Haldex Traction electro-mechanical clutch AWD system.

Engines

Further information: List of Audi vehicles § Production model engines

Volkswagen Group W12 engine from the Volkswagen Phaeton W12

Prior to the introduction of the Audi 80 and Audi 50 in 1972 and 1974, respectively, Audi had led the development of the EA111 and EA827 inline-four engine families. These new power units underpinned the water-cooled revival of parent company Volkswagen (in the Polo, Golf, Passat and Scirocco), whilst the many derivatives and descendants of these two basic engine designs have appeared in every generation of VW Group vehicles right up to the present day.

In the 1980s, Audi, along with Volvo, was the champion of the inline-five cylinder, 2.1/2.2 L engine as a longer-lasting alternative to more traditional six-cylinder engines. This engine was used not only in production cars but also in their race cars. The 2.1 L inline five-cylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980s, providing well over 400 horsepower (300 kilowatts) after modification. Before 1990, there were engines produced with a displacement between 2.0 L and 2.3 L. This range of engine capacity allowed for both fuel economy and power.

For the ultra-luxury version of its Audi A8 fullsize luxury flagship sedan, the Audi A8L W12, Audi uses the Volkswagen Group W12 engine instead of the conventional V12 engine favored by rivals Mercedes-Benz and BMW. The W12 engine configuration (also known as a "WR12") is created by forming two imaginary narrow-angle 15° VR6 engines at an angle of 72°, and the narrow angle of each set of cylinders allows just two overhead camshafts to drive each pair of banks, so just four are needed in total. The advantage of the W12 engine is its compact packaging, allowing Audi to build a 12-cylinder sedan with all-wheel drive, whereas a conventional V12 engine could have only a rear-wheel drive configuration as it would have no space in the engine bay for a differential and other components required to power the front wheels. In fact, the 6.0 L W12 in the Audi A8L W12 is smaller in overall dimensions than the 4.2 L V8 that powers the Audi A8 4.2 variants.[63] The 2011 Audi A8 debuted a revised 6.3-litre version of the W12 (WR12) engine with 500 PS (370 kW; 490 hp).

Fuel Stratified Injection

New models of the A3, A4, A6 and A8 have been introduced, with the ageing 1.8-litre engine now having been replaced by new Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) engines. Nearly every petroleum burning model in the range now incorporates this fuel-saving technology.

V8 FSI engine

Direct-Shift Gearbox

In 2003, Volkswagen introduced the Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG), a type of dual-clutch transmission. It is a type of automatic transmission, drivable like a conventional torque converter automatic transmission. Based on the gearbox found in the Group B S1, the system includes dual electro-hydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter. This is implemented in some VW Golfs, Audi A3, Audi A4 and TT models where DSG is called S-Tronic.

LED daytime running lights

Beginning in 2005, Audi has implemented white LED technology as daytime running lights (DRL) in their products. The distinctive shape of the DRLs has become a trademark of sorts. LEDs were first introduced on the Audi A8 W12, the world's first production car to have LED DRLs,[64][65][66] and have since spread throughout the entire model range. The LEDs are present on some Audi billboards.

Since 2010, Audi has also offered the LED technology in low- and high-beam headlights.[67]

The DRL in an Audi A4 B8

Multi Media Interface

Multi Media Interface-Menu on Audi virtual cockpit, Audi TT Mk3

Starting with the 2003 Audi A8, Audi has used a centralised control interface for its on-board infotainment systems, called Multi Media Interface (MMI). It is essentially a rotating control knob and 'segment' buttons – designed to control all in-car entertainment devices (radio, CD changer, iPod, TV tuner), satellite navigation, heating and ventilation, and other car controls with a screen.

The availability of MMI has gradually filtered down the Audi lineup, and following its introduction on the third generation A3 in 2011, MMI is now available across the entire range. It has been generally well received, as it requires less menu-surfing with its segment buttons around a central knob, along with 'main function' direct access buttons – with shortcuts to the radio or phone functions. The colour screen is mounted on the upright dashboard, and on the A4 (new), A5, A6, A8, and Q7, the controls are mounted horizontally.

Synthetic fuels

Main article: Electrofue

l

Audi has assisted with technology to produce synthetic diesel from water and carbon dioxide.[68][69][70] Audi calls the synthetic diesel E-diesel. It is also working on synthetic gasoline (which it calls E-gasoline).[71]

Logistics

Audi uses scanning gloves for parts registration during assembly, and automatic robots to transfer cars from factory to rail cars.[72]

Models

Main article: List of Audi vehicles

Current model range

The following tables list Audi production vehicles that are sold as of 2018:

Audi cars

A1 2018 Audi A1 S Line 30 TFSi S-A 1.0.jpg Supermini

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

A3 Audi A3 8Y 45 TFSI e IMG 4931.jpg Small family car

Saloon (sedan)

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

A4 2018 Audi A4 Sport TDi Quattro S-A 2.0.jpg Compact

executive car

Saloon (sedan)

Avant (estate/wagon)

Allroad (crossover

estate/wagon)

A5 2018 Audi A5 S Line TDi S-A 2.0 Front.jpg Compact

executive car

Coupé

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

Cabriolet (convertible)

A6 2018 Audi A6 TDi Quattro Front.jpg Executive car

Saloon (sedan)

Avant (estate/wagon)

Allroad (crossover estate/wagon)

A7 2018 Audi A7 S Line 40 TDi S-A 2.0.jpg Executive Car

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

A8 2018 Audi A8 50 TDi Quattro Automatic 3.0.jpg Full-size

luxury car

Saloon (sedan)

e-tron GT Audi e-tron GT IMG 5690.jpg Executive car

5-door fastback

Audi coupés and SUVs

TT Audi TT Roadster 45 TFSI quattro, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0732.jpg Compact sports car

Coupé

Roadster (convertible)

R8 Audi R8 V10 Decennium, GIMS 2019, Le Grand-Saconnex (GIMS1180).jpg Sports car

Coupé

Spyder (convertible)

Q2 2017 Audi Q2 Sport TDi 1.6 Front.jpg Subcompact crossover SUV

SUV

Q3 2019 Audi Q3 S Line 35 TFSi 1.5.jpg Compact crossover SUV

SUV

Q4 e-tron Audi Q4 e-tron IMG 5327.jpg Compact crossover SUV

SUV

Q5 2017 Audi Q5 S Line TFSi Quattro 2.0 Front.jpg Compact crossover SUV

SUV

Q7 2017 Audi Q7 S Line Quattro 3.0 Front.jpg Mid-size crossover SUV

SUV

Q8 2018 Audi Q8.jpg Mid-size crossover SUV

SUV

e-tron Audi e-tron, Paris Motor Show 2018, IMG 0442.jpg Compact crossover SUV

SUV

S and RS models

Main article: Audi S and RS models

S (Sport) models

S3 Audi S3 8Y Sedan IMG 4872.jpg Small

family car

Saloon (sedan)

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

S4 AudiS4IAA 2015.jpg Compact

executive car

Saloon (sedan)

Avant (estate/wagon)

S5 2018 Audi S5 TFSi Quattro Automatic 3.0 Front.jpg Compact

executive car

Coupé

Cabriolet (convertible)

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

S6 Audi S6 Avant C8 IMG 4309.jpg Executive car

Saloon (sedan)

Avant (estate/wagon)

S7 Audi S7 C8 IMG 3594.jpg Executive car

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

S8 Audi S8 D5 IMG 3491.jpg Executive car

Saloon (sedan)

TTS Audi TTS (8S) front.JPG Compact sports car

Coupé

Roadster (convertible)

SQ2 Audi S Q2 Facelift IMG 4935.jpg Subcompact crossover SUV

Crossover

SQ5 Audi SQ5 (FY) IMG 1971.jpg Mid-size SUV

Crossover

SQ7 Audi SQ7 Temperamentrot.jpg Full-size SUV

Crossover

SQ8 Audi SQ8 IMG 4425.jpg Full-size SUV

Crossover

RS (Rennsport/racing sport) models

e-tron GT RS Audi RS e-tron GT IAA 2021 1X7A0128.jpg Executive car

5-door fastback

TT RS 2018 Audi TT RS Coupe.jpg Compact

sports car

Coupé

Roadster (convertible)

RS3 Audi RS3 8Y Auto Zuerich 2021 IMG 0210.jpg Small family car

Saloon (Sedan)

5-door hatchback

RS4 2018 Audi RS4 TFSi Quattro Automatic 2.9 Front.jpg Compact

executive car

Avant (estate/wagon)

RS5 Audi RS5 Coupe IMG 0728.jpg Compact

executive car

Coupé

Cabriolet (convertible)

RS6 Audi RS6 Avant C8 IMG 0344.jpg Compact

executive car

Avant (estate/wagon)

RS7 Audi RS7 C8 IMG 4323.jpg Executive car

Sportback (5-door hatchback)

RSQ3 Audi RS Q3 Sportback IMG 4828.jpg Compact crossover SUV

Crossover

RSQ8 Audi RSQ8 IMG 4308.jpg Full-size SUV

Crossover

Electric vehicles

Further information: List of Audi vehicles § Concept models

Audi is planning an alliance with the Japanese electronics giant Sanyo to develop a pilot hybrid electric project for the Volkswagen Group. The alliance could result in Sanyo batteries and other electronic components being used in future models of the Volkswagen Group.[73] Concept electric vehicles unveiled to date include the Audi A1 Sportback Concept,[74] Audi A4 TDI Concept E,[75] and the fully electric Audi e-tron Concept Supercar.[76]

Self-driving cars

In December 2018, Audi announced to invest 14 billion Euro ($15.9 billion) in e-mobility, self-driving cars.[77]

Production figures

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 Q3 Q5 Q7 TT R8

1998[78] — — 143,974 271,152 — 174,867 — 15,355 — — — 13,682 —

1999[78] — — 143,505 252,514 — 162,573 — 14,636 — — — 52,579 —

2000[79] — 32,164 136,141 231,869 — 180,715 — 12,894 — — — 56,776 —

2001[80] — 49,369 131,082 308,778 — 186,467 — 11,708 — — — 39,349 —

2002[81] — 37,578 125,538 360,267 — 178,773 — 10,942 — — — 34,711 —

2003[82] — 27,323 159,417 353,836 — 168,612 — 21,748 — — — 32,337 —

2004[83] — 19,745 181,274 345,231 — 195,529 — 22,429 — — — 23,605 —

2005[84] — 10,026 224,961 337,705 — 215,437 — 21,515 — — 1,185 12,307 —

2006[85] — — 231,752 341,110 487 229,021 — 22,468 — — 72,169 23,675 164

2007[86] — — 231,117 289,806 25,549 243,842 — 22,182 — 162 77,395 56,766 4,125

2008[87] — — 222,164 378,885 57,650 214,074 — 20,140 — 20,324 59,008 41,789 5,656

2009[88] — — 206,747 282,033 84,883 182,090 — 8,599 — 105,074 27,929 22,821 2,101

2010[89] 51,937 — 198,974 306,291 111,270 211,256 8,496 22,435 — 154,604 48,937 26,217 3,485

2011[90] 117,566 — 189,068 321,045 111,758 241,862 37,301 38,542 19,613 183,678 53,703 25,508 3,551

2012[91] 123,111 — 164,666 329,759 103,357 284,888 28,950 35,932 106,918 209,799 54,558 21,880 2,241

Data from 1998 to 2010. Figures for different body types/versions of models have been merged to create overall figures for each model.

Motorsport

Audi has competed in various forms of motorsports. Audi's tradition in motorsport began with their former company Auto Union in the 1930s. In the 1990s, Audi found success in the Touring and Super Touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing in North America.

Rallying

Main article: Audi Sport WRC results

Walter Röhrl with his Quattro A2 during the 1984 Rally Portugal

In 1980, Audi released the Quattro, a four-wheel drive (4WD) turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide. It is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time, because it was one of the first to take advantage of the then-recently changed rules which allowed the use of four-wheel drive in competition racing. Many critics doubted the viability of four-wheel drive racers, thinking them to be too heavy and complex, yet the Quattro was to become a successful car. It led its first rally before going off the road, however, the rally world had been served notice 4WD was the future. The Quattro went on to achieve much success in the World Rally Championship. It won the 1983 (Hannu Mikkola) and the 1984 (Stig Blomqvist) drivers' titles,[92] and brought Audi the manufacturers' title in 1982 and 1984.[93]

Audi Quattro S1 driven at the 2007 Rallye Deutschland

In 1984, Audi launched the short-wheelbase Sport Quattro which dominated rally races in Monte Carlo and Sweden, with Audi taking all podium places, but succumbed to problems further into WRC contention. In 1985, after another season mired in mediocre finishes, Walter Röhrl finished the season in his Sport Quattro S1, and helped place Audi second in the manufacturers' points. Audi also received rally honours in the Hong Kong to Beijing rally in that same year. Michèle Mouton, the only female driver to win a round of the World Rally Championship and a driver for Audi, took the Sport Quattro S1, now simply called the "S1", and raced in the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb. The 1,439-metre (4,721 ft) climb race pits a driver and car to drive to the summit of the 4,302-metre (14,114 ft) Pikes Peak mountain in Colorado, and in 1985, Michèle Mouton set a new record of 11:25.39, and being the first woman to set a Pikes Peak record. In 1986, Audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in Portugal involving driver Joaquim Santos in his Ford RS200. Santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road, and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side, killing three and injuring 30. Bobby Unser used an Audi in that same year to claim a new record for the Pikes Peak Hill Climb at 11:09.22.

In 1987, Walter Röhrl claimed the title for Audi setting a new Pikes Peak International Hill Climb record of 10:47.85 in his Audi S1, which he had retired from the WRC two years earlier. The Audi S1 employed Audi's time-tested inline-five-cylinder turbocharged engine, with the final version generating 441 kW (600 PS; 591 bhp).[94] The engine was mated to a six-speed gearbox and ran on Audi's famous four-wheel drive system. All of Audi's top drivers drove this car; Hannu Mikkola, Stig Blomqvist, Walter Röhrl and Michèle Mouton. This Audi S1 started the range of Audi 'S' cars, which now represents an increased level of sports-performance equipment within the mainstream Audi model range.

In the United States

As Audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing, they chose to move first into America with the Trans-Am in 1988.

In 1989, Audi moved to International Motor Sports Association (IMSA) GTO with the Audi 90, however as they avoided the two major endurance events (Daytona and Sebring) despite winning on a regular basis, they would lose out on the title.

Touring cars

In 1990, having completed their objective to market cars in North America, Audi returned to Europe, turning first to the Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft (DTM) series with the Audi V8, and then in 1993, being unwilling to build cars for the new formula, they turned their attention to the fast-growing Super Touring series, which are a series of national championships. Audi first entered in the French Supertourisme and Italian Superturismo. In the following year, Audi would switch to the German Super Tourenwagen Cup (known as STW), and then to British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) the year after that.

The Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA), having difficulty regulating the quattro four-wheel drive system, and the impact it had on the competitors, would eventually ban all four-wheel drive cars from competing in the series in 1998,[95] but by then, Audi switched all their works efforts to sports car racing.

By 2000, Audi would still compete in the US with their RS4 for the SCCA Speed World GT Challenge, through dealer/team Champion Racing competing against Corvettes, Vipers, and smaller BMWs (where it is one of the few series to permit 4WD cars). In 2003, Champion Racing entered an RS6. Once again, the quattro four-wheel drive was superior, and Champion Audi won the championship. They returned in 2004 to defend their title, but a newcomer, Cadillac with the new Omega Chassis CTS-V, gave them a run for their money. After four victories in a row, the Audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the car's performance. Namely, added ballast weights, and Champion Audi deciding to go with different tyres, and reducing the boost pressure of the turbocharger.

In 2004, after years of competing with the TT-R in the revitalised DTM series, with privateer team Abt Racing/Christian Abt taking the 2002 title with Laurent Aïello, Audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factory-supported Joest Racing A4 DTM cars.

24 Hours of Le Mans

Further information: List of Audi vehicles § Le Mans prototypes

Audi R10 TDI

Audi began racing prototype sportscars in 1999, debuting at the Le Mans 24 hour. Two car concepts were developed and raced in their first season - the Audi R8R (open-cockpit 'roadster' prototype) and the Audi R8C (closed-cockpit 'coupé' GT-prototype). The R8R scored a credible podium on its racing debut at Le Mans and was the concept which Audi continued to develop into the 2000 season due to favourable rules for open-cockpit prototypes.

However, most of the competitors (such as BMW, Toyota, Mercedes and Nissan) retired at the end of 1999. The factory-supported Joest Racing team won at Le Mans three times in a row with the Audi R8 (2000–2002), as well as winning every race in the American Le Mans Series in its first year. Audi also sold the car to customer teams such as Champion Racing.

In 2003, two Bentley Speed 8s, with engines designed by Audi, and driven by Joest drivers loaned to the fellow Volkswagen Group company, competed in the GTP class, and finished the race in the top two positions, while the Champion Racing R8 finished third overall, and first in the LMP900 class. Audi returned to the winner's podium at the 2004 race, with the top three finishers all driving R8s: Audi Sport Japan Team Goh finished first, Audi Sport UK Veloqx second, and Champion Racing third.

At the 2005 24 Hours of Le Mans, Champion Racing entered two R8s, along with an R8 from the Audi PlayStation Team Oreca. The R8s (which were built to old LMP900 regulations) received a narrower air inlet restrictor, reducing power, and an additional 50 kg (110 lb) of weight compared to the newer LMP1 chassis. On average, the R8s were about 2–3 seconds off pace compared to the Pescarolo–Judd. But with a team of excellent drivers and experience, both Champion R8s were able to take first and third, while the Oreca team took fourth. The Champion team was also the first American team to win Le Mans since the Gulf Ford GTs in 1967. This also ends the long era of the R8; however, its replacement for 2006, called the Audi R10 TDI, was unveiled on 13 December 2005.

The R10 TDI employed many new and innovative features, the most notable being the twin-turbocharged direct injection diesel engine. It was first raced in the 2006 12 Hours of Sebring as a race-test in preparation for the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans, which it later went on to win. Audi had a win in the first diesel sports car at 12 Hours of Sebring (the car was developed with a Diesel engine due to ACO regulations that favor diesel engines). As well as winning the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 2006, the R10 TDI beat the Peugeot 908 HDi FAP in 2007, and in 2008, (however Peugeot won the 24h in 2009) with a podium clean-sweep (all four 908 entries retired) while breaking a distance record (set by the Porsche 917K of Martini Racing in 1971), in 2010 with the R15 TDI Plus.[96]

Audi's sports car racing success would continue with the Audi R18's victory at the 2011 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi Sport Team Joest's Benoît Tréluyer earned Audi their first pole position in five years while the team's sister car locked out the front row.[97] Early accidents eliminated two of Audi's three entries, but the sole remaining Audi R18 TDI of Tréluyer, Marcel Fässler, and André Lotterer held off the trio of Peugeot 908s to claim victory by a margin of 13.8 seconds.

Results

Car Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

1 Position 4 3 1 1 4 3 3 3 1 6 3 3 Ret 1 5 2 3 4

2 3 1 2 2 3 1 1 1 Ret 1 Ret 2 1 2 1 1 4 3

3 Ret 2 Ret 3 Ret 5 4 Ret 4 17 1 Ret 5 3 Ret 7

4 Ret Ret 7 2 3

American Le Mans Series

Audi entered a factory racing team run by Joest Racing into the American Le Mans Series under the Audi Sport North America name in 2000. This was a successful operation with the team winning on its debut in the series at the 2000 12 Hours of Sebring. Factory-backed Audi R8s were the dominant car in ALMS taking 25 victories between 2000 and the end of the 2002 season. In 2003, Audi sold customer cars to Champion Racing as well as continuing to race the factory Audi Sport North America team. Champion Racing won many races as a private team running Audi R8s and eventually replaced Team Joest as the Audi Sport North America between 2006 and 2008. Since 2009 Audi has not taken part in full American Le Mans Series Championships, but has competed in the series opening races at Sebring, using the 12-hour race as a test for Le Mans, and also as part of the 2012 FIA World Endurance Championship season calendar.

Results

Year Manufacturer Chassis Team Rd1 Rd2 Rd3 Rd4 Rd5 Rd6 Rd7 Rd8 Rd9 Rd10 Rd11 Rd12

2000 Germany Audi R8

United States Audi Sport North America 2 20 3 Ret 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1

1 6 4 3 2 Ret 1 4 2 2 1 15

2001 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 1 1 1 1 1 5 Ret 2 Ret Ret

2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 1 1

2002 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 5 14 1 2 3 2 Ret 1 1 6

1 2 1 2 1 1 4 3 1

2003 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 1 2 2 1 1 7 1 2 3

United States Champion Racing 2 1 3 2 20 1 4 1 1

2004 Germany Audi R8 United Kingdom Audi Sport UK 1

2

United States Champion Racing 3 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1

2005 Germany Audi R8 United States Champion Racing 1 1 18 1 3 Ret 3 2 7 4

2 3 3 2 1 1 1 3 1 2

2006 Germany Audi R8 United States Audi Sport North America 1 3 1

R10 Ret 1 2 1 4 7 2

1 4 1 2 1 1 1

2007 Germany Audi R10 United States Audi Sport North America 4 1 7 3 2 5 5 2 2 3 1 1

1 2 12 6 23 3 3 4 2 17 3

2008 Germany Audi R10 United States Audi Sport North America 3 Ret 2 Ret 21 2 2 2 DSQ 1 2

6 1 1 7 4 1 1 1 Ret 3 1

2009 Germany Audi R15 United States Audi Sport North America 5

4

2010 Germany Audi R15 United States Audi Sport North America 1

3

2012 Germany Audi R18 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 16

1

2

2013 Germany Audi R18 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 1

2

European Le Mans Series

Audi participated in the 2003 1000km of Le Mans which was a one-off sports car race in preparation for the 2004 European Le Mans Series. The factory team Audi Sport UK won races and the championship in the 2004 season but Audi was unable to match their sweeping success of Audi Sport North America in the American Le Mans Series, partly due to the arrival of a factory competitor in LMP1, Peugeot. The French manufacturer's 908 HDi FAP became the car to beat in the series from 2008 onwards with 20 LMP wins. However, Audi were able to secure the championship in 2008 even though Peugeot scored more race victories in the season.[98]

Results

Year Manufacturer Chassis Team Rd1 Rd2 Rd3 Rd4 Rd5

2003 Germany Audi R8 Japan Audi Sport Japan 1

2004 Germany Audi R8 United Kingdom Audi Sport UK 2 1 1 Ret

1 2 3 1

Japan Audi Sport Japan 3 4 2 2

2005 Germany Audi R8 France Team Oreca Ret 1 2 2

2008 Germany Audi R10 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 5 6 4 4 1

2 2 2 3 4

2010 Germany Audi R15 Germany Audi Sport Team Joest 1 3 Ret

5 3

12

World Endurance Championship

2012

In 2012, the FIA sanctioned a World Endurance Championship which would be organised by the ACO as a continuation of the ILMC. Audi competed won the first WEC race at Sebring and followed this up with a further three successive wins, including the 2012 24 Hours of Le Mans. Audi scored a final 5th victory in the 2012 WEC in Bahrain and were able to win the inaugural WEC Manufacturers' Championship.

2013

As defending champions, Audi once again entered the Audi R18 e-tron quattro chassis into the 2013 WEC and the team won the first five consecutive races, including the 2013 24 Hours of Le Mans. The victory at Round 5, Circuit of the Americas, was of particular significance as it marked the 100th win for Audi in Le Mans prototypes.[99] Audi secured their second consecutive WEC Manufacturers' Championship at Round 6 after taking second place and half points in the red-flagged Fuji race.[100]

2014

For the 2014 season, Audi entered a redesigned and upgraded R18 e-tron quattro which featured a 2 MJ energy recovery system. As defending champions, Audi would once again face a challenge in LMP1 from Toyota, and additionally from Porsche who returned to endurance racing after a 16-year absence. The season-opening 6hrs of Silverstone was a disaster for Audi who saw both cars retire from the race, marking the first time that an Audi car has failed to score a podium in a World Endurance Championship race.

The typeface Audi Sans (used 1997–2009)

The typeface Audi Type (used since 2009)

The Audi emblem is four overlapping rings that represent the four marques of Auto Union. The Audi emblem symbolises the amalgamation of Audi with DKW, Horch and Wanderer: the first ring from the left represents Audi, the second represents DKW, third is Horch, and the fourth and last ring Wanderer.[103][104] The design is popularly believed to have been the idea of Klaus von Oertzen, the director of sales at Wanderer – when Berlin was chosen as the host city for the 1936 Summer Olympics and that a form of the Olympic logo symbolized the newly established Auto Union's desire to succeed.[105] Somewhat ironically, the International Olympic Committee later sued Audi in the International Trademark Court in 1995, where they lost.[106]

The original "Audi" script, with the distinctive slanted tails on the "A" and "d" was created for the historic Audi company in 1920 by the famous graphic designer Lucian Bernhard, and was resurrected when Volkswagen revived the brand in 1965. Following the demise of NSU in 1977, less prominence was given to the four rings, in preference to the "Audi" script encased within a black (later red) ellipse, and was commonly displayed next to the Volkswagen roundel when the two brands shared a dealer network under the V.A.G banner. The ellipse (known as the Audi Oval) was phased out after 1994, when Audi formed its own independent dealer network, and prominence was given back to the four rings – at the same time Audi Sans (a derivative of Univers) was adopted as the font for all marketing materials, corporate communications and was also used in the vehicles themselves.

As part of Audi's centennial celebration in 2009, the company updated the logo, changing the font to left-aligned Audi Type, and altering the shading for the overlapping rings.[107] The revised logo was designed by Rayan Abdullah.[108]

Audi developed a Corporate Sound concept, with Audi Sound Studio designed for producing the Corporate Sound.[109] The Corporate Sound project began with sound agency Klangerfinder GmbH & Co KG and s12 GmbH. Audio samples were created in Klangerfinder's sound studio in Stuttgart, becoming part of Audi Sound Studio collection. Other Audi Sound Studio components include The Brand Music Pool, The Brand Voice.[110] Audi also developed Sound Branding Toolkit including certain instruments, sound themes, rhythm and car sounds which all are supposed to reflect the AUDI sound character.[111]

Audi started using a beating heart sound trademark beginning in 1996. An updated heartbeat sound logo, developed by agencies KLANGERFINDER GmbH & Co KG of Stuttgart and S12 GmbH of Munich, was first used in 2010 in an Audi A8 commercial with the slogan The Art of Progress.[112][113]

Slogans

Audi's corporate tagline is Vorsprung durch Technik [ˈfoːɐ̯ˌʃpʁʊŋ dʊʁç ˈtɛçnɪk], meaning "Progress through Technology".[114] The German-language tagline is used in many European countries, including the United Kingdom (but not in Italy, where All'avanguardia della tecnica is used), and in other markets, such as Latin America, Oceania, Africa and parts of Asia including Japan. Originally, the American tagline was Innovation through technology, but in Canada Vorsprung durch Technik was used. Since 2007, Audi has used the slogan Truth in Engineering in the U.S.[115] However, since the Audi emissions testing scandal came to light in September 2015, this slogan was lambasted for being discordant with reality.[116] In fact, just hours after disgraced Volkswagen CEO Martin Winterkorn admitted to cheating on emissions data, an advertisement during the 2015 Primetime Emmy Awards promoted Audi's latest advances in low emissions technology with Kermit the Frog stating, "It's not that easy being green."[117]

Vorsprung durch Technik was first used in English-language advertising after Sir John Hegarty of the Bartle Bogle Hegarty advertising agency visited the Audi factory in 1982.[118] In the original British television commercials, the phrase was voiced by Geoffrey Palmer.[118] After its repeated use in advertising campaigns, the phrase found its way into popular culture, including the British comedy Only Fools and Horses, the U2 song "Zooropa"[119] and the Blur song "Parklife". Similar-sounding phrases have also been used, including as the punchline for a joke in the movie Lock, Stock, and Two Smoking Barrels and in the British TV series Peep Show.

Typography

Audi Sans (based on Univers Extended) was originally created in 1997 by Ole Schäfer for MetaDesign. MetaDesign was later commissioned for a new corporate typeface called Audi Type, designed by Paul van der Laan and Pieter van Rosmalen of Bold Monday. The font began to appear in Audi's 2009 products and marketing materials.[120]

Sponsorships

Audi sponsors Bundesliga club Bayern Munich

Audi is a strong partner of different kinds of sports. In football, long partnerships exist between Audi and domestic clubs including Bayern Munich, Hamburger SV, 1. FC Nürnberg, Hertha BSC, and Borussia Mönchengladbach and international clubs including Chelsea, Real Madrid, FC Barcelona, A.C. Milan, AFC Ajax and Perspolis. Audi also sponsors winter sports: The Audi FIS Alpine Ski World Cup is named after the company. Additionally, Audi supports the German Ski Association (DSV) as well as the alpine skiing national teams of Switzerland, Sweden, Finland, France, Liechtenstein, Italy, Austria and the U.S. For almost two decades, Audi fosters golf sport: for example with the Audi quattro Cup and the HypoVereinsbank Ladies German Open presented by Audi. In sailing, Audi is engaged in the Medcup regatta and supports the team Luna Rossa during the Louis Vuitton Pacific Series and also is the primary sponsor of the Melges 20 sailboat. Further, Audi sponsors the regional teams ERC Ingolstadt (hockey) and FC Ingolstadt 04 (soccer).[121] In 2009, the year of Audi's 100th anniversary, the company organized the Audi Cup for the first time.[122] Audi also sponsor the New York Yankees as well. In October 2010 they agreed to a three sponsorship year-deal with Everton.[123] Audi also sponsors the England Polo Team and holds the Audi Polo Awards.[124][125]

Marvel Cinematic Universe

Since the start of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, Audi signed a deal to sponsor, promote and provide vehicles for several films. So far these have been, Iron Man, Iron Man 2, Iron Man 3, Avengers: Age of Ultron, Captain America: Civil War, Spider-Man: Homecoming, Avengers: Endgame and Spider-Man: Far From Home.[126] The R8 supercar became the personal vehicle for Tony Stark (played by Robert Downey Jr.) for six of these films.[127] The e-tron vehicles were promoted in Endgame and Far From Home. Several commercials were co-produced by Marvel and Audi to promote several new concepts and some of the latest vehicles such as the A8, SQ7 and the e-Tron fleet.[128][129][130]

Multitronic campaign

Audi Centre Sydney, Zetland, New South Wales, Australia

In 2001, Audi promoted the new multitronic continuously variable transmission with television commercials throughout Europe, featuring an impersonator of musician and actor Elvis Presley.[131][132] A prototypical dashboard figure – later named "Wackel-Elvis" ("Wobble Elvis" or "Wobbly Elvis") – appeared in the commercials to demonstrate the smooth ride in an Audi equipped with the multitronic transmission. The dashboard figure was originally intended for use in the commercials only, but after they aired the demand for Wackel-Elvis fans grew among fans and the figure was mass-produced in China and marketed by Audi in their factory outlet store.[133]

Audi TDI

As part of Audi's attempt to promote its Diesel technology in 2009, the company began Audi Mileage Marathon. The driving tour featured a fleet of 23 Audi TDI vehicles from 4 models (Audi Q7 3.0 TDI, Audi Q5 3.0 TDI, Audi A4 3.0 TDI, Audi A3 Sportback 2.0 TDI with S tronic transmission) travelling across the American continent from New York to Los Angeles, passing major cities like Chicago, Dallas and Las Vegas during the 13 daily stages, as well as natural wonders including the Rocky Mountains, Death Valley and the Grand Canyon.[134]

Audi e-tron

The next phase of technology Audi is developing is the e-tron electric drive powertrain system. They have shown several concept cars as of March 2010, each with different levels of size and performance. The original e-tron concept shown at the 2009 Frankfurt motor show is based on the platform of the R8 and has been scheduled for limited production. Power is provided by electric motors at all four wheels. The second concept was shown at the 2010 Detroit Motor Show. Power is provided by two electric motors at the rear axle. This concept is also considered to be the direction for a future mid-engined gas-powered 2-seat performance coupe. The Audi A1 e-tron concept, based on the Audi A1 production model, is a hybrid vehicle with a range extending Wankel rotary engine to provide power after the initial charge of the battery is depleted. It is the only concept of the three to have range-extending capability. The car is powered through the front wheels, always using electric power.

It is all set to be displayed at the Auto Expo 2012 in New Delhi, India, from 5 January. Powered by a 1.4 litre engine, and can cover a distance up to 54 km s on a single charge. The e-tron was also shown in the 2013 blockbuster film Iron Man 3 and was driven by Tony Stark (Iron Man).

In video games

Audi has supported the European version of PlayStation Home, the PlayStation 3's online community-based service, by releasing a dedicated Home space. Audi is the first carmaker to develop such a space for Home. On 17 December 2009, Audi released two spaces; the Audi Home Terminal and the Audi Vertical Run.[135] The Audi Home Terminal features an Audi TV channel delivering video content, an Internet Browser feature, and a view of a city. The Audi Vertical Run is where users can access the mini-game Vertical Run, a futuristic mini-game featuring Audi's e-tron concept. Players collect energy and race for the highest possible speeds and the fastest players earn a place in the Audi apartments located in a large tower in the centre of the Audi Space. In both the Home Terminal and Vertical Run spaces, there are teleports where users can teleport back and forth between the two spaces. Audi had stated that additional content would be added in 2010.[needs update][136] On 31 March 2015 Sony shutdown the PlayStation Home service rendering all content for it inaccessible.[137]

The Rubik's Cube is a 3-D combination puzzle invented in 1974 by Hungarian sculptor and professor of architecture Ernő Rubik. Originally called the Magic Cube, the puzzle was licensed by Rubik to be sold by Ideal Toy Corp. in 1980 via businessman Tibor Laczi and Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer. Rubik's Cube won the 1980 German Game of the Year special award for Best Puzzle. As of January 2009, 350 million cubes had been sold worldwide, making it the world's bestselling puzzle game and bestselling toy.

On the original classic Rubik's Cube, each of the six faces was covered by nine stickers, each of one of six solid colours: white, red, blue, orange, green, and yellow. Some later versions of the cube have been updated to use coloured plastic panels instead, which prevents peeling and fading. In models as of 1988, white is opposite yellow, blue is opposite green, and orange is opposite red, and the red, white, and blue are arranged in that order in a clockwise arrangement. On early cubes, the position of the colours varied from cube to cube. An internal pivot mechanism enables each face to turn independently, thus mixing up the colours. For the puzzle to be solved, each face must be returned to have only one colour. Similar puzzles have now been produced with various numbers of sides, dimensions, and stickers, not all of them by Rubik.

Although the Rubik's Cube reached its height of mainstream popularity in the 1980s, it is still widely known and used. Many speedcubers continue to practice it and similar puzzles; they also compete for the fastest times in various categories. Since 2003, the World Cube Association, the international governing body of the Rubik's Cube, has organised competitions worldwide and recognises world records.

Precursors

Diagram from Nichols' patent showing a cube held together with magnets

In March 1970, Larry D. Nichols invented a 2×2×2 "Puzzle with Pieces Rotatable in Groups" and filed a Canadian patent application for it. Nichols's cube was held together by magnets. Nichols was granted U.S. Patent 3,655,201 on 11 April 1972, two years before Rubik invented his Cube.

On 9 April 1970, Frank Fox applied to patent an "amusement device", a type of sliding puzzle on a spherical surface with "at least two 3×3 arrays" intended to be used for the game of noughts and crosses. He received his UK patent on 16 January 1974.

Packaging of Rubik's Cube, Toy of the year 1980–Ideal Toy Corp., made in Hungary

In the mid-1970s, Ernő Rubik worked at the Department of Interior Design at the Academy of Applied Arts and Crafts in Budapest. Although it is widely reported that the Cube was built as a teaching tool to help his students understand 3D objects, his actual purpose was solving the structural problem of moving the parts independently without the entire mechanism falling apart. He did not realise that he had created a puzzle until the first time he scrambled his new Cube and then tried to restore it. Rubik applied for a patent in Hungary for his "Magic Cube" (Bűvös kocka in Hungarian) on 30 January 1975,and HU170062 was granted later that year.

The first test batches of the Magic Cube were produced in late 1977 and released in Budapest toy shops. Magic Cube was held together with interlocking plastic pieces that prevented the puzzle being easily pulled apart, unlike the magnets in Nichols's design. With Ernő Rubik's permission, businessman Tibor Laczi took a Cube to Germany's Nuremberg Toy Fair in February 1979 in an attempt to popularise it. It was noticed by Seven Towns founder Tom Kremer, and they signed a deal with Ideal Toys in September 1979 to release the Magic Cube worldwide.[18] Ideal wanted at least a recognisable name to trademark; that arrangement put Rubik in the spotlight because the Magic Cube was renamed after its inventor in 1980. The puzzle made its international debut at the toy fairs of London, Paris, Nuremberg, and New York in January and February 1980.

After its international debut, the progress of the Cube towards the toy shop shelves of the West was briefly halted so that it could be manufactured to Western safety and packaging specifications. A lighter Cube was produced, and Ideal decided to rename it. "The Gordian Knot" and "Inca Gold" were considered, but the company finally decided on "Rubik's Cube", and the first batch was exported from Hungary in May 1980.

1980s Cube craze

See also: Rubik's Cube in popular culture

After the first batches of Rubik's Cubes were released in May 1980, initial sales were modest, but Ideal began a television advertising campaign in the middle of the year which it supplemented with newspaper advertisements. At the end of 1980, Rubik's Cube won a German Game of the Year special award and won similar awards for best toy in the UK, France, and the US. By 1981, Rubik's Cube had become a craze, and it is estimated that in the period from 1980 to 1983 around 200 million Rubik's Cubes were sold worldwide. In March 1981, a speedcubing championship organised by the Guinness Book of World Records was held in Munich, and a Rubik's Cube was depicted on the front cover of Scientific American that same month. In June 1981, The Washington Post reported that Rubik's Cube is "a puzzle that's moving like fast food right now ... this year's Hoola Hoop or Bongo Board", and by September 1981, New Scientist noted that the cube had "captivated the attention of children of ages from 7 to 70 all over the world this summer."

As most people could solve only one or two sides, numerous books were published including David Singmaster's Notes on Rubik's "Magic Cube" (1980) and Patrick Bossert's You Can Do the Cube (1981).At one stage in 1981, three of the top ten best selling books in the US were books on solving Rubik's Cube,[28] and the best-selling book of 1981 was James G. Nourse's The Simple Solution to Rubik's Cube which sold over 6 million copies. In 1981, the Museum of Modern Art in New York exhibited a Rubik's Cube, and at the 1982 World's Fair in Knoxville, Tennessee a six-foot Cube was put on display. ABC Television even developed a cartoon show called Rubik, the Amazing Cube. In June 1982, the First Rubik's Cube World Championship took place in Budapest and would become the only competition recognized as official until the championship was revived in 2003.

In October 1982, The New York Times reported that sales had fallen and that "the craze has died", and by 1983 it was clear that sales had plummeted. However, in some Communist countries, such as China and the USSR, the craze had started later and demand was still high because of a shortage of Cubes.

Rubik's Cubes continued to be sold throughout the 1980s and 1990s, but it wasn't until the early 2000s that interest in the cube began to grow again. In the US, sales doubled between 2001 and 2003, with The Boston Globe noting that it "became cool to own a Cube again". The 2003 Rubik's World Championship was the first speedcubing tournament since 1982. It was held in Toronto and was attended by 83 participants[35]. The tournament led to the creation of the World Cube Association in 2004. In 2008, the annual sales of Rubik's Cubes worldwide are reported to have reached 15 million pieces. Part of the new appeal has been attributed to the emergence of video sites on the Internet such as YouTube, which allowed fans to share their solving strategies. After the Rubik's patent expired in 2000, other brands of cubes appeared, especially from Chinese companies.[38] Many of these Chinese branded cubes were designed for speed and are popular with speedcubers. On October 27, 2020, Spin Master stated that it would pay $50 million to purchase the Rubik's Cube brand.

Rubik's Brand Ltd. also holds the registered trademarks for the word "Rubik" and "Rubik's" and for the 2D and 3D visualisations of the puzzle. The trademarks have been upheld by a ruling of the General Court of the European Union on 25 November 2014 in a successful defence against a German toy manufacturer seeking to invalidate them. However, European toy manufacturers are allowed to create differently shaped puzzles that have a similar rotating or twisting functionality of component parts such as for example Skewb, Pyraminx or Impossiball.

On 10 November 2016, Rubik's Cube lost a ten-year battle over a key trademark issue. The European Union's highest court, the Court of Justice, ruled that the puzzle's shape was not sufficient to grant it trademark protection.

A standard Rubik's Cube measures 5.6 centimetres (2+1⁄4 in) on each side. The puzzle consists of 26 unique miniature cubes, also known as "cubies" or "cubelets". Each of these includes a concealed inward extension that interlocks with the other cubes while permitting them to move to different locations. However, the centre cube of each of the six faces is merely a single square façade; all six are affixed to the core mechanism. These provide structure for the other pieces to fit into and rotate around. Hence, there are 21 pieces: a single core piece consisting of three intersecting axes holding the six centre squares in place but letting them rotate, and 20 smaller plastic pieces that fit into it to form the assembled puzzle.[48]

Each of the six centre pieces pivots on a screw (fastener) held by the centre piece, a "3D cross". A spring between each screw head and its corresponding piece tensions the piece inward, so that collectively, the whole assembly remains compact but can still be easily manipulated. The screw can be tightened or loosened to change the "feel" of the Cube. Newer official Rubik's brand cubes have rivets instead of screws and cannot be adjusted. However, Old Cubes made by the Rubik's Brand Ltd. and from dollar stores do not have screws or springs, all they have is a plastic clip to keep the centre piece in place and freely rotate.

The Cube can be taken apart without much difficulty, typically by rotating the top layer by 45° and then prying one of its edge cubes away from the other two layers. Consequently, it is a simple process to "solve" a Cube by taking it apart and reassembling it in a solved state.

There are six central pieces that show one coloured face, twelve edge pieces that show two coloured faces, and eight corner pieces that show three coloured faces. Each piece shows a unique colour combination, but not all combinations are present (for example, if red and orange are on opposite sides of the solved Cube, there is no edge piece with both red and orange sides). The location of these cubes relative to one another can be altered by twisting an outer third of the Cube by increments of 90 degrees, but the location of the coloured sides relative to one another in the completed state of the puzzle cannot be altered; it is fixed by the relative positions of the centre squares. However, Cubes with alternative colour arrangements also exist; for example, with the yellow face opposite the green, the blue face opposite the white, and red and orange remaining opposite each other.

Douglas Hofstadter, in the July 1982 issue of Scientific American, pointed out that Cubes could be coloured in such a way as to emphasise the corners or edges, rather than the faces as the standard colouring does; but neither of these alternative colourings has ever become popular.

The original (3×3×3) Rubik's Cube has eight corners and twelve edges. There are 8! (40,320) ways to arrange the corner cubes. Each corner has three possible orientations, although only seven (of eight) can be oriented independently; the orientation of the eighth (final) corner depends on the preceding seven, giving 37 (2,187) possibilities. There are 12!/2 (239,500,800) ways to arrange the edges, restricted from 12! because edges must be in an even permutation exactly when the corners are. (When arrangements of centres are also permitted, as described below, the rule is that the combined arrangement of corners, edges, and centres must be an even permutation.) Eleven edges can be flipped independently, with the flip of the twelfth depending on the preceding ones, giving 211 (2,048) possibilities.[50]

{\displaystyle {8!\times 3^{7}\times {\frac {12!}{2}}\times 2^{11}}=43{,}252{,}003{,}274{,}489{,}856{,}000}{\displaystyle {8!\times 3^{7}\times {\frac {12!}{2}}\times 2^{11}}=43{,}252{,}003{,}274{,}489{,}856{,}000}

which is approximately 43 quintillion.[51] To put this into perspective, if one had one standard-sized Rubik's Cube for each permutation, one could cover the Earth's surface 275 times, or stack them in a tower 261 light-years high.

The preceding figure is limited to permutations that can be reached solely by turning the sides of the cube. If one considers permutations reached through disassembly of the cube, the number becomes twelve times larger:

{\displaystyle {8!\times 3^{8}\times 12!\times 2^{12}}=519{,}024{,}039{,}293{,}878{,}272{,}000}{\displaystyle {8!\times 3^{8}\times 12!\times 2^{12}}=519{,}024{,}039{,}293{,}878{,}272{,}000}

which is approximately 519 quintillion[51] possible arrangements of the pieces that make up the cube, but only one in twelve of these are actually solvable. This is because there is no sequence of moves that will swap a single pair of pieces or rotate a single corner or edge cube. Thus, there are 12 possible sets of reachable configurations, sometimes called "universes" or "orbits", into which the cube can be placed by dismantling and reassembling it.

The preceding numbers assume the centre faces are in a fixed position. If one considers turning the whole cube to be a different permutation, then each of the preceding numbers should be multiplied by 24. A chosen colour can be on one of six sides, and then one of the adjacent colours can be in one of four positions; this determines the positions of all remaining colours.

The original Rubik's Cube had no orientation markings on the centre faces (although some carried the words "Rubik's Cube" on the centre square of the white face), and therefore solving it does not require any attention to orienting those faces correctly. However, with marker pens, one could, for example, mark the central squares of an unscrambled Cube with four coloured marks on each edge, each corresponding to the colour of the adjacent face; a cube marked in this way is referred to as a "supercube". Some Cubes have also been produced commercially with markings on all of the squares, such as the Lo Shu magic square or playing card suits. Cubes have also been produced where the nine stickers on a face are used to make a single larger picture, and centre orientation matters on these as well. Thus one can nominally solve a Cube yet have the markings on the centres rotated; it then becomes an additional test to solve the centres as well.

Marking Rubik's Cube's centres increases its difficulty, because this expands the set of distinguishable possible configurations. There are 46/2 (2,048) ways to orient the centres since an even permutation of the corners implies an even number of quarter turns of centres as well. In particular, when the Cube is unscrambled apart from the orientations of the central squares, there will always be an even number of centre squares requiring a quarter turn. Thus orientations of centres increases the total number of possible Cube permutations from 43,252,003,274,489,856,000 (4.3×1019) to 88,580,102,706,155,225,088,000 (8.9×1022).[52]

When turning a cube over is considered to be a change in permutation then we must also count arrangements of the centre faces. Nominally there are 6! ways to arrange the six centre faces of the cube, but only 24 of these are achievable without disassembly of the cube. When the orientations of centres are also counted, as above, this increases the total number of possible Cube permutations from 88,580,102,706,155,225,088,000 (8.9×1022) to 2,125,922,464,947,725,402,112,000 (2.1×1024).

In Rubik's cubers' parlance, a memorised sequence of moves that has a desired effect on the cube is called an algorithm. This terminology is derived from the mathematical use of algorithm, meaning a list of well-defined instructions for performing a task from a given initial state, through well-defined successive states, to a desired end-state. Each method of solving the Cube employs its own set of algorithms, together with descriptions of what effect the algorithm has, and when it can be used to bring the cube closer to being solved.

Many algorithms are designed to transform only a small part of the cube without interfering with other parts that have already been solved so that they can be applied repeatedly to different parts of the cube until the whole is solved. For example, there are well-known algorithms for cycling three corners without changing the rest of the puzzle or flipping the orientation of a pair of edges while leaving the others intact.

Some algorithms do have a certain desired effect on the cube (for example, swapping two corners) but may also have the side-effect of changing other parts of the cube (such as permuting some edges). Such algorithms are often simpler than the ones without side effects and are employed early on in the solution when most of the puzzle has not yet been solved and the side effects are not important. Most are long and difficult to memorise. Towards the end of the solution, the more specific (and usually more complicated) algorithms are used instead.

The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. At about one-quarter the diameter of Earth (comparable to the width of Australia),[16] it is the largest natural satellite in the Solar System relative to the size of a major planet,[f] the fifth largest satellite in the Solar System overall, and larger than any known dwarf planet. The Moon is a planetary-mass object that formed a differentiated rocky body, making it a satellite planet under the geophysical definitions of the term.[17] It lacks any significant atmosphere, hydrosphere, or magnetic field. Its surface gravity is about one-sixth of Earth's (0.1654 g); Jupiter's moon Io is the only satellite in the Solar System known to have a higher surface gravity and density.

Orbiting Earth at an average distance of 384,400 km (238,900 mi),[18] or about 30 times Earth's diameter, its gravitational influence slightly lengthens Earth's day and is the main driver of Earth's tides. The Moon's orbit around Earth has a sidereal period of 27.3 days. During each synodic period of 29.5 days, the amount of visible surface illuminated by the Sun varies from none up to 100%, resulting in lunar phases that form the basis for the months of a lunar calendar. The Moon is tidally locked to Earth, which means that the length of a full rotation of the Moon on its own axis causes its same side (the near side) to always face Earth, and the somewhat longer lunar day is the same as the synodic period. That said, 59% of the total lunar surface can be seen from Earth through shifts in perspective due to libration.[19]

The most widely accepted origin explanation posits that the Moon formed about 4.51 billion years ago, not long after Earth, out of the debris from a giant impact between the planet and a hypothesized Mars-sized body called Theia. It then receded to a wider orbit because of tidal interaction with the Earth. The near side of the Moon is marked by dark volcanic maria ("seas"), which fill the spaces between bright ancient crustal highlands and prominent impact craters. Most of the large impact basins and mare surfaces were in place by the end of the Imbrian period, some three billion years ago. The lunar surface is relatively non-reflective, with a reflectance just slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt. However, because it has a large angular diameter, the full moon is the brightest celestial object in the night sky. The Moon's apparent size is nearly the same as that of the Sun, allowing it to cover the Sun almost completely during a total solar eclipse.

Both the Moon's prominence in the earthly sky and its regular cycle of phases have provided cultural references and influences for human societies throughout history. Such influences can be found in language, calendar systems, art, and mythology. The first artificial object to reach the Moon was the Soviet Union's Luna 2 uncrewed spacecraft in 1959; this was followed by the first successful soft landing by Luna 9 in 1966. The only human lunar missions to date have been those of the United States' Apollo program, which landed twelve men on the surface between 1969 and 1972. These and later uncrewed missions returned lunar rocks that have been used to develop a detailed geological understanding of the Moon's origins, internal structure, and subsequent history.

Contents

1 Name and etymology

2 Formation

3 Physical characteristics

3.1 Internal structure

3.1.1 Magnetic field

3.2 Surface geology

3.2.1 Volcanic features

3.2.2 Impact craters

3.2.3 Gravitational field

3.2.4 Lunar swirls

3.2.5 Presence of water

3.3 Surface conditions

3.3.1 Atmosphere

3.3.2 Dust

4 Earth–Moon system

4.1 Lunar distance

4.2 Orbit

4.3 Relative size

4.4 Appearance from Earth

4.4.1 Eclipses

4.5 Tidal effects

5 Observation and exploration

5.1 Before spaceflight

5.2 1959–1970s

5.2.1 Soviet missions

5.2.2 United States missions

5.3 1970s–present

5.4 Future

5.4.1 Planned commercial missions

6 Human presence

6.1 Human impact

6.1.1 Pollution and contamination

6.2 Infrastructure

6.3 Astronomy from the Moon

6.4 Living on the Moon

7 Legal status

7.1 Coordination

8 In culture and life

8.1 Calendar

8.2 Mythology and art

8.2.1 Modern representation and attribution

8.3 Lunar effect

9 See also

10 Explanatory notes

11 References

12 Further reading

13 External links

13.1 Cartographic resources

13.2 Observation tools

13.3 General

Name and etymology

See also: Moon § Mythology and art

A color image of the Moon captured by the Galileo spacecraft, showing both the near and far sides (right and left). Mare Orientale is slightly left of center.

The usual English proper name for Earth's natural satellite is simply the Moon, with a capital M.[20][21] The noun moon is derived from Old English mōna, which (like all its Germanic cognates) stems from Proto-Germanic *mēnōn,[22] which in turn comes from Proto-Indo-European *mēnsis "month"[23] (from earlier *mēnōt, genitive *mēneses) which may be related to the verb "measure" (of time).[24]

Occasionally, the name Luna /ˈluːnə/ is used in scientific writing[25] and especially in science fiction to distinguish the Earth's moon from others, while in poetry "Luna" has been used to denote personification of the Moon.[26] Cynthia /ˈsɪnθiə/ is another poetic name, though rare, for the Moon personified as a goddess,[27] while Selene /səˈliːniː/ (literally "Moon") is the Greek goddess of the Moon.

The usual English adjective pertaining to the Moon is "lunar", derived from the Latin word for the Moon, lūna. The adjective selenian /səliːniən/,[28] derived from the Greek word for the Moon, σελήνη selēnē, and used to describe the Moon as a world rather than as an object in the sky, is rare,[29] while its cognate selenic was originally a rare synonym[30] but now nearly always refers to the chemical element selenium.[31] The Greek word for the Moon does however provide us with the prefix seleno-, as in selenography, the study of the physical features of the Moon, as well as the element name selenium.[32][33]

The Greek goddess of the wilderness and the hunt, Artemis, equated with the Roman Diana, one of whose symbols was the Moon and who was often regarded as the goddess of the Moon, was also called Cynthia, from her legendary birthplace on Mount Cynthus.[34] These names – Luna, Cynthia and Selene – are reflected in technical terms for lunar orbits such as apolune, pericynthion and selenocentric.

Formation

Main articles: Origin of the Moon, Giant-impact hypothesis, and Circumplanetary disk

Isotope dating of lunar samples suggests the Moon formed around 50 million years after the origin of the Solar System.[35][36] Historically, several formation mechanisms have been proposed,[37] but none satisfactorily explained the features of the Earth–Moon system. A fission of the Moon from Earth's crust through centrifugal force[38] would require too great an initial rotation rate of Earth.[39] Gravitational capture of a pre-formed Moon[40] depends on an unfeasibly extended atmosphere of Earth to dissipate the energy of the passing Moon.[39] A co-formation of Earth and the Moon together in the primordial accretion disk does not explain the depletion of metals in the Moon.[39] None of these hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system.[41]

File:Evolution of the Moon.ogv

The evolution of the Moon and a tour of the Moon

The prevailing theory is that the Earth–Moon system formed after a giant impact of a Mars-sized body (named Theia) with the proto-Earth. The impact blasted material into orbit about the Earth and then the material accreted and formed the Moon[42][43] just beyond the Earth's Roche limit of ~2.56 R🜨.[44]

Giant impacts are thought to have been common in the early Solar System. Computer simulations of giant impacts have produced results that are consistent with the mass of the lunar core and the angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system. These simulations also show that most of the Moon derived from the impactor, rather than the proto-Earth.[45] However, more recent simulations suggest a larger fraction of the Moon derived from the proto-Earth.[46][47][48][49] Other bodies of the inner Solar System such as Mars and Vesta have, according to meteorites from them, very different oxygen and tungsten isotopic compositions compared to Earth. However, Earth and the Moon have nearly identical isotopic compositions. The isotopic equalization of the Earth-Moon system might be explained by the post-impact mixing of the vaporized material that formed the two,[50] although this is debated.[51]

The impact released energy and then the released material re-accreted into the Earth–Moon system. This would have melted the outer shell of Earth, and thus formed a magma ocean.[52][53] Similarly, the newly formed Moon would also have been affected and had its own lunar magma ocean; its depth is estimated from about 500 km (300 miles) to 1,737 km (1,079 miles).[52]

Oceanus Procellarum ("Ocean of Storms")

Ancient rift valleys – rectangular structure (visible – topography – GRAIL gravity gradients)

Ancient rift valleys – context

Ancient rift valleys – closeup (artist's concept)

While the giant-impact theory explains many lines of evidence, some questions are still unresolved, most of which involve the Moon's composition.[54][example needed]

In 2001, a team at the Carnegie Institute of Washington reported the most precise measurement of the isotopic signatures of lunar rocks.[55] The rocks from the Apollo program had the same isotopic signature as rocks from Earth, differing from almost all other bodies in the Solar System. This observation was unexpected, because most of the material that formed the Moon was thought to come from Theia and it was announced in 2007 that there was less than a 1% chance that Theia and Earth had identical isotopic signatures.[56] Other Apollo lunar samples had in 2012 the same titanium isotopes composition as Earth,[57] which conflicts with what is expected if the Moon formed far from Earth or is derived from Theia. These discrepancies may be explained by variations of the giant-impact theory. For instance, a high-speed drive-by hit by the impactor allowed it to return to earth a second time but more slowly, and mix more thoroughly.[58] A hit-and-run-and-return scenario might be more likely.[59]

Physical characteristics

The Moon

Near side of the Moon

Far side of the Moon

Lunar north pole

Lunar south pole

The Moon is a very slightly scalene ellipsoid due to tidal stretching, with its long axis displaced 30° from facing the Earth, due to gravitational anomalies from impact basins. Its shape is more elongated than current tidal forces can account for. This 'fossil bulge' indicates that the Moon solidified when it orbited at half its current distance to the Earth, and that it is now too cold for its shape to adjust to its orbit.[60]

Internal structure

Main article: Internal structure of the Moon

Lunar surface chemical composition[61]

Compound Formula Composition

Maria Highlands

silica SiO2 45.4% 45.5%

alumina Al2O3 14.9% 24.0%

lime CaO 11.8% 15.9%

iron(II) oxide FeO 14.1% 5.9%

magnesia MgO 9.2% 7.5%

titanium dioxide TiO2 3.9% 0.6%

sodium oxide Na2O 0.6% 0.6%

99.9% 100.0%

The Moon is a differentiated body that was initially in hydrostatic equilibrium but has since departed from this condition.[62] It has a geochemically distinct crust, mantle, and core. The Moon has a solid iron-rich inner core with a radius possibly as small as 240 kilometres (150 mi) and a fluid outer core primarily made of liquid iron with a radius of roughly 300 kilometres (190 mi). Around the core is a partially molten boundary layer with a radius of about 500 kilometres (310 mi).[63][64] This structure is thought to have developed through the fractional crystallization of a global magma ocean shortly after the Moon's formation 4.5 billion years ago.[65]

Crystallization of this magma ocean would have created a mafic mantle from the precipitation and sinking of the minerals olivine, clinopyroxene, and orthopyroxene; after about three-quarters of the magma ocean had crystallised, lower-density plagioclase minerals could form and float into a crust atop.[66] The final liquids to crystallise would have been initially sandwiched between the crust and mantle, with a high abundance of incompatible and heat-producing elements.[1] Consistent with this perspective, geochemical mapping made from orbit suggests a crust of mostly anorthosite.[15] The Moon rock samples of the flood lavas that erupted onto the surface from partial melting in the mantle confirm the mafic mantle composition, which is more iron-rich than that of Earth.[1] The crust is on average about 50 kilometres (31 mi) thick.[1]

The Moon is the second-densest satellite in the Solar System, after Io.[67] However, the inner core of the Moon is small, with a radius of about 350 kilometres (220 mi) or less,[1] around 20% of the radius of the Moon. Its composition is not well understood, but is probably metallic iron alloyed with a small amount of sulfur and nickel; analyses of the Moon's time-variable rotation suggest that it is at least partly molten.[68] The pressure at the lunar core is estimated to be 5 GPa (49,000 atm).[69]

Magnetic field

Main article: Magnetic field of the Moon

The Moon has an external magnetic field of generally less than 0.2 nanoteslas,[70] or less than one hundred thousandth that of Earth. The Moon does not currently have a global dipolar magnetic field and only has crustal magnetization likely acquired early in its history when a dynamo was still operating.[71][72] However, early in its history, 4 billion years ago, its magnetic field strength was likely close to that of Earth today.[70] This early dynamo field apparently expired by about one billion years ago, after the lunar core had completely crystallized.[70] Theoretically, some of the remnant magnetization may originate from transient magnetic fields generated during large impacts through the expansion of plasma clouds. These clouds are generated during large impacts in an ambient magnetic field. This is supported by the location of the largest crustal magnetizations situated near the antipodes of the giant impact basins.[73]

Surface geology

Main articles: Topography of the Moon, Geology of the Moon, Moon rock, and List of lunar features

Geological features of the Moon (near side / north pole at left, far side / south pole at right)

Topography of the Moon measured from the Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter on the mission Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, referenced to a sphere of radius 1737.4 km

Topography of the Moon

The topography of the Moon has been measured with laser altimetry and stereo image analysis.[74] Its most extensive topographic feature is the giant far-side South Pole–Aitken basin, some 2,240 km (1,390 mi) in diameter, the largest crater on the Moon and the second-largest confirmed impact crater in the Solar System.[75][76] At 13 km (8.1 mi) deep, its floor is the lowest point on the surface of the Moon.[75][77] The highest elevations of the Moon's surface are located directly to the northeast, which might have been thickened by the oblique formation impact of the South Pole–Aitken basin.[78] Other large impact basins such as Imbrium, Serenitatis, Crisium, Smythii, and Orientale possess regionally low elevations and elevated rims.[75] The far side of the lunar surface is on average about 1.9 km (1.2 mi) higher than that of the near side.[1]

The discovery of fault scarp cliffs suggest that the Moon has shrunk by about 90 metres (300 ft) within the past billion years.[79] Similar shrinkage features exist on Mercury. Mare Frigoris, a basin near the north pole long assumed to be geologically dead, has cracked and shifted. Since the Moon doesn't have tectonic plates, its tectonic activity is slow and cracks develop as it loses heat.[80]

Volcanic features

Main article: Volcanism on the Moon

The dark and relatively featureless lunar plains, clearly seen with the naked eye, are called maria (Latin for "seas"; singular mare), as they were once believed to be filled with water;[81] they are now known to be vast solidified pools of ancient basaltic lava. Although similar to terrestrial basalts, lunar basalts have more iron and no minerals altered by water.[82] The majority of these lava deposits erupted or flowed into the depressions associated with impact basins. Several geologic provinces containing shield volcanoes and volcanic domes are found within the near side "maria".[83]

Evidence of young lunar volcanism

Almost all maria are on the near side of the Moon, and cover 31% of the surface of the near side[84] compared with 2% of the far side.[85] This is likely due to a concentration of heat-producing elements under the crust on the near side, which would have caused the underlying mantle to heat up, partially melt, rise to the surface and erupt.[66][86][87] Most of the Moon's mare basalts erupted during the Imbrian period, 3.0–3.5 billion years ago, although some radiometrically dated samples are as old as 4.2 billion years.[88] As of 2003, crater counting studies of the youngest eruptions appeared to suggest they formed no earlier than 1.2 billion years ago.[89]

In 2006, a study of Ina, a tiny depression in Lacus Felicitatis, found jagged, relatively dust-free features that, because of the lack of erosion by infalling debris, appeared to be only 2 million years old.[90] Moonquakes and releases of gas also indicate some continued lunar activity.[90] Evidence of recent lunar volcanism has been identified at 70 irregular mare patches, some less than 50 million years old. This raises the possibility of a much warmer lunar mantle than previously believed, at least on the near side where the deep crust is substantially warmer because of the greater concentration of radioactive elements.[91][92][93][94] Evidence has been found for 2–10 million years old basaltic volcanism within the crater Lowell,[95][96] inside the Orientale basin. Some combination of an initially hotter mantle and local enrichment of heat-producing elements in the mantle could be responsible for prolonged activities on the far side in the Orientale basin.[97][98]

The lighter-colored regions of the Moon are called terrae, or more commonly highlands, because they are higher than most maria. They have been radiometrically dated to having formed 4.4 billion years ago, and may represent plagioclase cumulates of the lunar magma ocean.[88][89] In contrast to Earth, no major lunar mountains are believed to have formed as a result of tectonic events.[99]

The concentration of maria on the near side likely reflects the substantially thicker crust of the highlands of the Far Side, which may have formed in a slow-velocity impact of a second moon of Earth a few tens of millions of years after the Moon's formation.[100][101] Alternatively, it may be a consequence of asymmetrical tidal heating when the Moon was much closer to the Earth.[102]

Impact craters

Further information: List of craters on the Moon

A gray, many-ridged surface from high above. The largest feature is a circular ringed structure with high walled sides and a lower central peak: the entire surface out to the horizon is filled with similar structures that are smaller and overlapping.

Lunar crater Daedalus on the Moon's far side

A major geologic process that has affected the Moon's surface is impact cratering,[103] with craters formed when asteroids and comets collide with the lunar surface. There are estimated to be roughly 300,000 craters wider than 1 km (0.6 mi) on the Moon's near side.[104] The lunar geologic timescale is based on the most prominent impact events, including Nectaris, Imbrium, and Orientale; structures characterized by multiple rings of uplifted material, between hundreds and thousands of kilometers in diameter and associated with a broad apron of ejecta deposits that form a regional stratigraphic horizon.[105] The lack of an atmosphere, weather, and recent geological processes mean that many of these craters are well-preserved. Although only a few multi-ring basins have been definitively dated, they are useful for assigning relative ages. Because impact craters accumulate at a nearly constant rate, counting the number of craters per unit area can be used to estimate the age of the surface.[105] The radiometric ages of impact-melted rocks collected during the Apollo missions cluster between 3.8 and 4.1 billion years old: this has been used to propose a Late Heavy Bombardment period of increased impacts.[106]

Blanketed on top of the Moon's crust is a highly comminuted (broken into ever smaller particles) and impact gardened surface layer called regolith, formed by impact processes. The finer regolith, the lunar soil of silicon dioxide glass, has a texture resembling snow and a scent resembling spent gunpowder.[107] The regolith of older surfaces is generally thicker than for younger surfaces: it varies in thickness from 10–20 km (6.2–12.4 mi) in the highlands and 3–5 km (1.9–3.1 mi) in the maria.[108] Beneath the finely comminuted regolith layer is the megaregolith, a layer of highly fractured bedrock many kilometers thick.[109]

High-resolution images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter in the 2010s show a contemporary crater-production rate significantly higher than was previously estimated. A secondary cratering process caused by distal ejecta is thought to churn the top two centimeters of regolith on a timescale of 81,000 years.[110][111] This rate is 100 times faster than the rate computed from models based solely on direct micrometeorite impacts.[112]

Lunar swirls at Reiner Gamma

Gravitational field

Main article: Gravity of the Moon

GRAIL's gravity map of the Moon

The gravitational field of the Moon has been measured through tracking the Doppler shift of radio signals emitted by orbiting spacecraft. The main lunar gravity features are mascons, large positive gravitational anomalies associated with some of the giant impact basins, partly caused by the dense mare basaltic lava flows that fill those basins.[113][114] The anomalies greatly influence the orbit of spacecraft about the Moon. There are some puzzles: lava flows by themselves cannot explain all of the gravitational signature, and some mascons exist that are not linked to mare volcanism.[115]

Lunar swirls

Main article: Lunar swirls

Lunar swirls are enigmatic features found across the Moon's surface. They are characterized by a high albedo, appear optically immature (i.e. the optical characteristics of a relatively young regolith), and have often a sinuous shape. Their shape is often accentuated by low albedo regions that wind between the bright swirls. They are located in places with enhanced surface magnetic fields and many are located at the antipodal point of major impacts. Well known swirls include the Reiner Gamma feature and Mare Ingenii. They are hypothesized to be areas that have been partially shielded from the solar wind, resulting in slower space weathering.[116]

Presence of water

Main article: Lunar water

Liquid water cannot persist on the lunar surface. When exposed to solar radiation, water quickly decomposes through a process known as photodissociation and is lost to space. However, since the 1960s, scientists have hypothesized that water ice may be deposited by impacting comets or possibly produced by the reaction of oxygen-rich lunar rocks, and hydrogen from solar wind, leaving traces of water which could possibly persist in cold, permanently shadowed craters at either pole on the Moon.[117][118] Computer simulations suggest that up to 14,000 km2 (5,400 sq mi) of the surface may be in permanent shadow.[119] The presence of usable quantities of water on the Moon is an important factor in rendering lunar habitation as a cost-effective plan; the alternative of transporting water from Earth would be prohibitively expensive.[120]

In years since, signatures of water have been found to exist on the lunar surface.[121] In 1994, the bistatic radar experiment located on the Clementine spacecraft, indicated the existence of small, frozen pockets of water close to the surface. However, later radar observations by Arecibo, suggest these findings may rather be rocks ejected from young impact craters.[122] In 1998, the neutron spectrometer on the Lunar Prospector spacecraft showed that high concentrations of hydrogen are present in the first meter of depth in the regolith near the polar regions.[123] Volcanic lava beads, brought back to Earth aboard Apollo 15, showed small amounts of water in their interior.[124]

The 2008 Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft has since confirmed the existence of surface water ice, using the on-board Moon Mineralogy Mapper. The spectrometer observed absorption lines common to hydroxyl, in reflected sunlight, providing evidence of large quantities of water ice, on the lunar surface. The spacecraft showed that concentrations may possibly be as high as 1,000 ppm.[125] Using the mapper's reflectance spectra, indirect lighting of areas in shadow confirmed water ice within 20° latitude of both poles in 2018.[126] In 2009, LCROSS sent a 2,300 kg (5,100 lb) impactor into a permanently shadowed polar crater, and detected at least 100 kg (220 lb) of water in a plume of ejected material.[127][128] Another examination of the LCROSS data showed the amount of detected water to be closer to 155 ± 12 kg (342 ± 26 lb).[129]

In May 2011, 615–1410 ppm water in melt inclusions in lunar sample 74220 was reported,[130] the famous high-titanium "orange glass soil" of volcanic origin collected during the Apollo 17 mission in 1972. The inclusions were formed during explosive eruptions on the Moon approximately 3.7 billion years ago. This concentration is comparable with that of magma in Earth's upper mantle. Although of considerable selenological interest, this announcement affords little comfort to would-be lunar colonists – the sample originated many kilometers below the surface, and the inclusions are so difficult to access that it took 39 years to find them with a state-of-the-art ion microprobe instrument.

Analysis of the findings of the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) revealed in August 2018 for the first time "definitive evidence" for water-ice on the lunar surface.[131][132] The data revealed the distinct reflective signatures of water-ice, as opposed to dust and other reflective substances.[133] The ice deposits were found on the North and South poles, although it is more abundant in the South, where water is trapped in permanently shadowed craters and crevices, allowing it to persist as ice on the surface since they are shielded from the sun.[131][133]

In October 2020, astronomers reported detecting molecular water on the sunlit surface of the Moon by several independent spacecraft, including the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA).[134][135][136][137]

Surface conditions

The surface of the Moon is an extreme environment with temperatures that range from 140 °C down to −171 °C, an atmospheric pressure of 10−10 Pa, and high levels of ionizing radiation from the Sun and cosmic rays. The exposed surfaces of spacecraft are considered unlikely to harbor bacterial spores after just one lunar orbit.[138] The surface gravity of the Moon is approximately 1.625 m/s2, about 16.6% that on Earth's surface or 0.166 ɡ.[4]

Atmosphere

Main article: Atmosphere of the Moon

Sketch by the Apollo 17 astronauts. The lunar atmosphere was later studied by LADEE.[139][140]

The Moon has an atmosphere so tenuous as to be nearly vacuum, with a total mass of less than 10 tonnes (9.8 long tons; 11 short tons).[141] The surface pressure of this small mass is around 3 × 10−15 atm (0.3 nPa); it varies with the lunar day. Its sources include outgassing and sputtering, a product of the bombardment of lunar soil by solar wind ions.[15][142] Elements that have been detected include sodium and potassium, produced by sputtering (also found in the atmospheres of Mercury and Io); helium-4 and neon[143] from the solar wind; and argon-40, radon-222, and polonium-210, outgassed after their creation by radioactive decay within the crust and mantle.[144][145] The absence of such neutral species (atoms or molecules) as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and magnesium, which are present in the regolith, is not understood.[144] Water vapor has been detected by Chandrayaan-1 and found to vary with latitude, with a maximum at ~60–70 degrees; it is possibly generated from the sublimation of water ice in the regolith.[146] These gases either return into the regolith because of the Moon's gravity or are lost to space, either through solar radiation pressure or, if they are ionized, by being swept away by the solar wind's magnetic field.[144]

Studies of Moon magma samples retrieved by the Apollo missions demonstrate that the Moon had once possessed a relatively thick atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago. This atmosphere, sourced from gases ejected from lunar volcanic eruptions, was twice the thickness of that of present-day Mars. The ancient lunar atmosphere was eventually stripped away by solar winds and dissipated into space.[147]

Dust

A permanent Moon dust cloud exists around the Moon, generated by small particles from comets. Estimates are 5 tons of comet particles strike the Moon's surface every 24 hours, resulting in the ejection of dust particles. The dust stays above the Moon approximately 10 minutes, taking 5 minutes to rise, and 5 minutes to fall. On average, 120 kilograms of dust are present above the Moon, rising up to 100 kilometers above the surface. Dust counts made by LADEE's Lunar Dust EXperiment (LDEX) found particle counts peaked during the Geminid, Quadrantid, Northern Taurid, and Omicron Centaurid meteor showers, when the Earth, and Moon pass through comet debris. The lunar dust cloud is asymmetric, being more dense near the boundary between the Moon's dayside and nightside.[148][149]

Earth–Moon system

See also: Satellite system (astronomy), Other moons of Earth, and Double planet

Lunar distance

Main article: Lunar distance (astronomy)

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Lunar distance (astronomy).[edit]

The instantaneous Earth–Moon distance, or distance to the Moon, is the distance from the center of Earth to the center of the Moon. Lunar distance (LD or {\textstyle \Delta _{\oplus L}}{\textstyle \Delta _{\oplus L}}), or Earth–Moon characteristic distance, is a unit of measure in astronomy. More technically, it is the semi-major axis of the geocentric lunar orbit. The lunar distance is approximately 400,000 km, which is a quarter of a million miles or 1.28 light-seconds. This is roughly thirty times Earth's diameter. A little less than 400 Lunar distances make up an astronomical unit.

Scale model of the Earth–Moon system: Sizes and distances are to scale.

Minimum, mean and maximum distances of the Moon from Earth with its angular diameter as seen from Earth's surface, to scale

Orbit

Main articles: Orbit of the Moon and Lunar theory

Earth has a pronounced axial tilt; the Moon's orbit is not perpendicular to Earth's axis, but lies close to Earth's orbital plane.

Earth–Moon system (schematic)

Because of tidal locking, the rotation of the Moon around its own axis is synchronous to its orbital period around the Earth. The Moon makes a complete orbit around Earth with respect to the fixed stars about once every 27.3 days,[g] its sidereal period. However, because Earth is moving in its orbit around the Sun at the same time, it takes slightly longer for the Moon to show the same phase to Earth, which is about 29.5 days;[h] its synodic period.[84][150]

Unlike most satellites of other planets, the Moon orbits closer to the ecliptic plane than to the planet's equatorial plane. The Moon's orbit is subtly perturbed by the Sun and Earth in many small, complex and interacting ways. For example, the plane of the Moon's orbit gradually rotates once every 18.61 years,[151] which affects other aspects of lunar motion. These follow-on effects are mathematically described by Cassini's laws.[152]

The Moon's axial tilt with respect to the ecliptic is only 1.5427°,[8][153] much less than the 23.44° of Earth. Because of this, the Moon's solar illumination varies much less with season, and topographical details play a crucial role in seasonal effects.[154] From images taken by Clementine in 1994, it appears that four mountainous regions on the rim of the crater Peary at the Moon's north pole may remain illuminated for the entire lunar day, creating peaks of eternal light. No such regions exist at the south pole. Similarly, there are places that remain in permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters,[119] and these "craters of eternal darkness" are extremely cold: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter measured the lowest summer temperatures in craters at the southern pole at 35 K (−238 °C; −397 °F)[155] and just 26 K (−247 °C; −413 °F) close to the winter solstice in the north polar crater Hermite. This is the coldest temperature in the Solar System ever measured by a spacecraft, colder even than the surface of Pluto.[154] Average temperatures of the Moon's surface are reported, but temperatures of different areas will vary greatly depending upon whether they are in sunlight or shadow.[156]

Relative size

DSCOVR satellite sees the Moon passing in front of Earth

The Moon is an exceptionally large natural satellite relative to Earth: Its diameter is more than a quarter and its mass is 1/81 of Earth's.[84] It is the largest moon in the Solar System relative to the size of its planet,[i] though Charon is larger relative to the dwarf planet Pluto, at 1/9 Pluto's mass.[j][157] The Earth and the Moon's barycentre, their common center of mass, is located 1,700 km (1,100 mi) (about a quarter of Earth's radius) beneath the Earth's surface.

The Earth revolves around the Earth-Moon barycentre once a sidereal month, with 1/81 the speed of the Moon, or about 12.5 metres (41 ft) per second. This motion is superimposed on the much larger revolution of the Earth around the Sun at a speed of about 30 kilometres (19 mi) per second.

The surface area of the Moon is slightly less than the areas of North and South America combined.

Appearance from Earth

See also: Lunar observation, Lunar phase, Moonlight, and Earthlight (astronomy)

The synchronous rotation of the Moon as it orbits the Earth results in it always keeping nearly the same face turned towards the planet. However, because of the effect of libration, about 59% of the Moon's surface can actually be seen from Earth. The side of the Moon that faces Earth is called the near side, and the opposite the far side. The far side is often inaccurately called the "dark side", but it is in fact illuminated as often as the near side: once every 29.5 Earth days. During new moon, the near side is dark.[158]

The Moon originally rotated at a faster rate, but early in its history its rotation slowed and became tidally locked in this orientation as a result of frictional effects associated with tidal deformations caused by Earth.[159] With time, the energy of rotation of the Moon on its axis was dissipated as heat, until there was no rotation of the Moon relative to Earth. In 2016, planetary scientists using data collected on the 1998-99 NASA Lunar Prospector mission, found two hydrogen-rich areas (most likely former water ice) on opposite sides of the Moon. It is speculated that these patches were the poles of the Moon billions of years ago before it was tidally locked to Earth.[160]

During the lunar phases, only portions of the Moon can be observed from Earth.

The Moon has an exceptionally low albedo, giving it a reflectance that is slightly brighter than that of worn asphalt. Despite this, it is the brightest object in the sky after the Sun.[84][k] This is due partly to the brightness enhancement of the opposition surge; the Moon at quarter phase is only one-tenth as bright, rather than half as bright, as at full moon.[161] Additionally, color constancy in the visual system recalibrates the relations between the colors of an object and its surroundings, and because the surrounding sky is comparatively dark, the sunlit Moon is perceived as a bright object. The edges of the full moon seem as bright as the center, without limb darkening, because of the reflective properties of lunar soil, which retroreflects light more towards the Sun than in other directions. The Moon does appear larger when close to the horizon, but this is a purely psychological effect, known as the Moon illusion, first described in the 7th century BC.[162] The full Moon's angular diameter is about 0.52° (on average) in the sky, roughly the same apparent size as the Sun (see § Eclipses).

The Moon's highest altitude at culmination varies by its phase and time of year. The full moon is highest in the sky during winter (for each hemisphere). The orientation of the Moon's crescent also depends on the latitude of the viewing location; an observer in the tropics can see a smile-shaped crescent Moon.[163] The Moon is visible for two weeks every draconic month (27.2 days) at the North and South Poles. Zooplankton in the Arctic use moonlight when the Sun is below the horizon for months on end.[164] The orientation of the Moon depends on the hemisphere of the Earth from which it is being viewed. In the northern hemisphere it is seen upside down compared to the view in the southern hemisphere.[165]

A full moon appears as a half moon during an eclipse moonset over the High Desert in California, on the morning of the Trifecta: Full moon, Supermoon, Lunar eclipse, January 2018 lunar eclipse

The distance between the Moon and Earth varies from around 356,400 km (221,500 mi) to 406,700 km (252,700 mi) at perigee (closest) and apogee (farthest), respectively. On 14 November 2016, it was closer to Earth when at full phase than it has been since 1948, 14% closer than its farthest position in apogee.[166] Reported as a "supermoon", this closest point coincided within an hour of a full moon, and it was 30% more luminous than when at its greatest distance because its angular diameter is 14% greater and {\displaystyle \scriptstyle 1.14^{2}\approx 1.30}\scriptstyle 1.14^{2}\approx 1.30.[167][168][169] At lower levels, the human perception of reduced brightness as a percentage is provided by the following formula:[170][171]

{\displaystyle {\text{perceived reduction}}\%=100\times {\sqrt {{\text{actual reduction}}\% \over 100}}}{\displaystyle {\text{perceived reduction}}\%=100\times {\sqrt {{\text{actual reduction}}\% \over 100}}}

When the actual reduction is 1.00 / 1.30, or about 0.770, the perceived reduction is about 0.877, or 1.00 / 1.14. This gives a maximum perceived increase of 14% between apogee and perigee moons of the same phase.[172]

There has been historical controversy over whether features on the Moon's surface change over time. Today, many of these claims are thought to be illusory, resulting from observation under different lighting conditions, poor astronomical seeing, or inadequate drawings. However, outgassing does occasionally occur and could be responsible for a minor percentage of the reported lunar transient phenomena. Recently, it has been suggested that a roughly 3 km (1.9 mi) diameter region of the lunar surface was modified by a gas release event about a million years ago.[173][174]

The Moon's appearance, like the Sun's, can be affected by Earth's atmosphere. Common optical effects are the 22° halo ring, formed when the Moon's light is refracted through the ice crystals of high cirrostratus clouds, and smaller coronal rings when the Moon is seen through thin clouds.[175]

The monthly changes in the angle between the direction of sunlight and view from Earth, and the phases of the Moon that result, as viewed from the Northern Hemisphere. The Earth–Moon distance is not to scale.

The illuminated area of the visible sphere (degree of illumination) is given by {\displaystyle (1-\cos e)/2=\sin ^{2}(e/2)}{\displaystyle (1-\cos e)/2=\sin ^{2}(e/2)}, where {\displaystyle e}e is the elongation (i.e., the angle between Moon, the observer on Earth, and the Sun).

Eclipses

Main articles: Solar eclipse, Lunar eclipse, and Eclipse cycle

The Moon, tinted reddish, during a lunar eclipse

The fiercely bright disk of the Sun is completely obscured by the exact fit of the disk of the dark, non-illuminated Moon, leaving only the radial, fuzzy, glowing coronal filaments of the Sun around the edge.

The bright disk of the Sun, showing many coronal filaments, flares and grainy patches in the wavelength of this image, is partly obscured by a small dark disk: here, the Moon covers less than a fifteenth of the Sun.

From Earth, the Moon and the Sun appear the same size, as seen in the 1999 solar eclipse (left), whereas from the STEREO-B spacecraft in an Earth-trailing orbit, the Moon appears much smaller than the Sun (right).[176]

Eclipses only occur when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are all in a straight line (termed "syzygy"). Solar eclipses occur at new moon, when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth. In contrast, lunar eclipses occur at full moon, when Earth is between the Sun and Moon. The apparent size of the Moon is roughly the same as that of the Sun, with both being viewed at close to one-half a degree wide. The Sun is much larger than the Moon but it is the vastly greater distance that gives it the same apparent size as the much closer and much smaller Moon from the perspective of Earth. The variations in apparent size, due to the non-circular orbits, are nearly the same as well, though occurring in different cycles. This makes possible both total (with the Moon appearing larger than the Sun) and annular (with the Moon appearing smaller than the Sun) solar eclipses.[177] In a total eclipse, the Moon completely covers the disc of the Sun and the solar corona becomes visible to the naked eye. Because the distance between the Moon and Earth is very slowly increasing over time,[178] the angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing. Also, as it evolves toward becoming a red giant, the size of the Sun, and its apparent diameter in the sky, are slowly increasing.[l] The combination of these two changes means that hundreds of millions of years ago, the Moon would always completely cover the Sun on solar eclipses, and no annular eclipses were possible. Likewise, hundreds of millions of years in the future, the Moon will no longer cover the Sun completely, and total solar eclipses will not occur.[179]

Because the Moon's orbit around Earth is inclined by about 5.145° (5° 9') to the orbit of Earth around the Sun, eclipses do not occur at every full and new moon. For an eclipse to occur, the Moon must be near the intersection of the two orbital planes.[180] The periodicity and recurrence of eclipses of the Sun by the Moon, and of the Moon by Earth, is described by the saros, which has a period of approximately 18 years.[181]

Because the Moon continuously blocks the view of a half-degree-wide circular area of the sky,[m][182] the related phenomenon of occultation occurs when a bright star or planet passes behind the Moon and is occulted: hidden from view. In this way, a solar eclipse is an occultation of the Sun. Because the Moon is comparatively close to Earth, occultations of individual stars are not visible everywhere on the planet, nor at the same time. Because of the precession of the lunar orbit, each year different stars are occulted.[183]

Tidal effects

Main articles: Tidal force, Tidal acceleration, Tide, and Theory of tides

Over one lunar month more than half of the Moon's surface can be seen from Earth's surface.

The libration of the Moon over a single lunar month. Also visible is the slight variation in the Moon's visual size from Earth.

The gravitational attraction that masses have for one another decreases inversely with the square of the distance of those masses from each other. As a result, the slightly greater attraction that the Moon has for the side of Earth closest to the Moon, as compared to the part of the Earth opposite the Moon, results in tidal forces. Tidal forces affect both the Earth's crust and oceans.

The most obvious effect of tidal forces is to cause two bulges in the Earth's oceans, one on the side facing the Moon and the other on the side opposite. This results in elevated sea levels called ocean tides.[178] As the Earth rotates on its axis, one of the ocean bulges (high tide) is held in place "under" the Moon, while another such tide is opposite. As a result, there are two high tides, and two low tides in about 24 hours.[178] Since the Moon is orbiting the Earth in the same direction of the Earth's rotation, the high tides occur about every 12 hours and 25 minutes; the 25 minutes is due to the Moon's time to orbit the Earth. The Sun has the same tidal effect on the Earth, but its forces of attraction are only 40% that of the Moon's; the Sun's and Moon's interplay is responsible for spring and neap tides.[178] If the Earth were a water world (one with no continents) it would produce a tide of only one meter, and that tide would be very predictable, but the ocean tides are greatly modified by other effects: the frictional coupling of water to Earth's rotation through the ocean floors, the inertia of water's movement, ocean basins that grow shallower near land, the sloshing of water between different ocean basins.[184] As a result, the timing of the tides at most points on the Earth is a product of observations that are explained, incidentally, by theory.

While gravitation causes acceleration and movement of the Earth's fluid oceans, gravitational coupling between the Moon and Earth's solid body is mostly elastic and plastic. The result is a further tidal effect of the Moon on the Earth that causes a bulge of the solid portion of the Earth nearest the Moon. Delays in the tidal peaks of both ocean and solid-body tides cause torque in opposition to the Earth's rotation. This "drains" angular momentum and rotational kinetic energy from Earth's rotation, slowing the Earth's rotation.[178][185] That angular momentum, lost from the Earth, is transferred to the Moon in a process (confusingly known as tidal acceleration), which lifts the Moon into a higher orbit and results in its lower orbital speed about the Earth. Thus the distance between Earth and Moon is increasing, and the Earth's rotation is slowing in reaction.[185] Measurements from laser reflectors left during the Apollo missions (lunar ranging experiments) have found that the Moon's distance increases by 38 mm (1.5 in) per year (roughly the rate at which human fingernails grow).[186][187][188] Atomic clocks also show that Earth's day lengthens by about 17 microseconds every year,[189][190][191] slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. This tidal drag would continue until the rotation of Earth and the orbital period of the Moon matched, creating mutual tidal locking between the two and suspending the Moon over one meridian (this is currently the case with Pluto and its moon Charon). However, the Sun will become a red giant engulfing the Earth-Moon system long before this occurrence.[192][193]

In a like manner, the lunar surface experiences tides of around 10 cm (4 in) amplitude over 27 days, with three components: a fixed one due to Earth, because they are in synchronous rotation, a variable tide due to orbital eccentricity and inclination, and a small varying component from the Sun.[185] The Earth-induced variable component arises from changing distance and libration, a result of the Moon's orbital eccentricity and inclination (if the Moon's orbit were perfectly circular and un-inclined, there would only be solar tides).[185] Libration also changes the angle from which the Moon is seen, allowing a total of about 59% of its surface to be seen from Earth over time.[84] The cumulative effects of stress built up by these tidal forces produces moonquakes. Moonquakes are much less common and weaker than are earthquakes, although moonquakes can last for up to an hour – significantly longer than terrestrial quakes – because of scattering of the seismic vibrations in the dry fragmented upper crust. The existence of moonquakes was an unexpected discovery from seismometers placed on the Moon by Apollo astronauts from 1969 through 1972.[194]

According to recent research, scientists suggest that the Moon's influence on the Earth may contribute to maintaining Earth's magnetic field.[195]

Observation and exploration

Main articles: Exploration of the Moon, List of spacecraft that orbited the Moon, List of missions to the Moon, and List of lunar probes

See also: Timeline of Solar System exploration

Before spaceflight

Main article: Exploration of the Moon: Before spaceflight

One of the earliest-discovered possible depictions of the Moon is a 5000-year-old rock carving Orthostat 47 at Knowth, Ireland.[196][197]

Understanding of the Moon's cycles was an early development of astronomy: The ancient Greek philosopher Anaxagoras (d. 428 BC) reasoned that the Sun and Moon were both giant spherical rocks, and that the latter reflected the light of the former.[198][199]: 227  Elsewhere in the 5th century BC to 4th century BC, Babylonian astronomers had recorded the 18-year Saros cycle of lunar eclipses,[200] and Indian astronomers had described the Moon's monthly elongation.[201] The Chinese astronomer Shi Shen (fl. 4th century BC) gave instructions for predicting solar and lunar eclipses.[199]: 411 

In Aristotle's (384–322 BC) description of the universe, the Moon marked the boundary between the spheres of the mutable elements (earth, water, air and fire), and the imperishable stars of aether, an influential philosophy that would dominate for centuries.[202] Archimedes (287–212 BC) designed a planetarium that could calculate the motions of the Moon and other objects in the Solar System.[203] However, in the 2nd century BC, Seleucus of Seleucia correctly theorized that tides were due to the attraction of the Moon, and that their height depends on the Moon's position relative to the Sun.[204] In the same century, Aristarchus computed the size and distance of the Moon from Earth, obtaining a value of about twenty times the radius of Earth for the distance.

Although the Chinese of the Han Dynasty believed the Moon to be energy equated to qi, their 'radiating influence' theory also recognized that the light of the Moon was merely a reflection of the Sun, and Jing Fang (78–37 BC) noted the sphericity of the Moon.[199]: 413–414  Ptolemy (90–168 AD) greatly improved on the numbers of Aristarchus, calculating the values of a mean distance of 59 times Earth's radius and a diameter of 0.292 Earth diameters were close to the correct values of about 60 and 0.273 respectively.[205] In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote the novel A True Story, in which the heroes travel to the Moon and meet its inhabitants. In 499 AD, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the Moon.[206] The astronomer and physicist Alhazen (965–1039) found that sunlight was not reflected from the Moon like a mirror, but that light was emitted from every part of the Moon's sunlit surface in all directions.[207] Shen Kuo (1031–1095) of the Song dynasty created an allegory equating the waxing and waning of the Moon to a round ball of reflective silver that, when doused with white powder and viewed from the side, would appear to be a crescent.[199]: 415–416 

During the Middle Ages, before the invention of the telescope, the Moon was increasingly recognised as a sphere, though many believed that it was "perfectly smooth".[208]

Galileo's sketches of the Moon from the ground-breaking Sidereus Nuncius

In 1609, Galileo Galilei used an early telescope to make drawings of the Moon for his book Sidereus Nuncius, and deduced that it was not smooth but had mountains and craters. Thomas Harriot had made, but not published such drawings a few months earlier.

On an open folio page is a carefully drawn disk of the full moon. In the upper corners of the page are waving banners held aloft by pairs of winged cherubs. In the lower left page corner a cherub assists another to measure distances with a pair of compasses; in the lower right corner a cherub views the main map through a handheld telescope, whereas another, kneeling, peers at the map from over a low cloth-draped table.

Map of the Moon by Johannes Hevelius from his Selenographia (1647), the first map to include the libration zones

Telescopic mapping of the Moon followed: later in the 17th century, the efforts of Giovanni Battista Riccioli and Francesco Maria Grimaldi led to the system of naming of lunar features in use today. The more exact 1834–1836 Mappa Selenographica of Wilhelm Beer and Johann Heinrich Mädler, and their associated 1837 book Der Mond, the first trigonometrically accurate study of lunar features, included the heights of more than a thousand mountains, and introduced the study of the Moon at accuracies possible in earthly geography.[209] Lunar craters, first noted by Galileo, were thought to be volcanic until the 1870s proposal of Richard Proctor that they were formed by collisions.[84] This view gained support in 1892 from the experimentation of geologist Grove Karl Gilbert, and from comparative studies from 1920 to the 1940s,[210] leading to the development of lunar stratigraphy, which by the 1950s was becoming a new and growing branch of astrogeology.[84]

1959–1970s

See also: Space Race and Moon landing

Between the first human arrival with the robotic Soviet Luna program in 1958, to the 1970s with the last Missions of the crewed U.S. Apollo landings and last Luna mission in 1976, the Cold War-inspired Space Race between the Soviet Union and the U.S. led to an acceleration of interest in exploration of the Moon. Once launchers had the necessary capabilities, these nations sent uncrewed probes on both flyby and impact/lander missions.

Soviet missions

Main articles: Luna program and Lunokhod programme

First view in history of the far side of the Moon, taken by Luna 3, 7 October 1959

Spacecraft from the Soviet Union's Luna program were the first to accomplish a number of goals: following three unnamed, failed missions in 1958,[211] the first human-made object to escape Earth's gravity and pass near the Moon was Luna 1; the first human-made object to impact the lunar surface was Luna 2, and the first photographs of the normally occluded far side of the Moon were made by Luna 3, all in 1959. The first spacecraft to perform a successful lunar soft landing was Luna 9 and the first vehicle to orbit the Moon was Luna 10, both in 1966.[84] Rock and soil samples were brought back to Earth by three Luna sample return missions (Luna 16 in 1970, Luna 20 in 1972, and Luna 24 in 1976), which returned 0.3 kg total.[212] Luna 17 deployed the first lunar rover, Lunokhod 1, in 1970.

United States missions

Main articles: Apollo program and Moon landing

The small blue-white semicircle of Earth, almost glowing with color in the blackness of space, rising over the limb of the desolate, cratered surface of the Moon.

Earthrise (Apollo 8, 1968, taken by William Anders)

Moon rock (Lunar basalt 70017, Apollo 17, 1972)

During the late 1950s at the height of the Cold War, the United States Army conducted a classified feasibility study that proposed the construction of a staffed military outpost on the Moon called Project Horizon with the potential to conduct a wide range of missions from scientific research to nuclear Earth bombardment. The study included the possibility of conducting a lunar-based nuclear test.[213][214] The Air Force, which at the time was in competition with the Army for a leading role in the space program, developed its own similar plan called Lunex.[215][216][213] However, both these proposals were ultimately passed over as the space program was largely transferred from the military to the civilian agency NASA.[216]

Following President John F. Kennedy's 1961 commitment to a manned Moon landing before the end of the decade, the United States, under NASA leadership, launched a series of uncrewed probes to develop an understanding of the lunar surface in preparation for human missions: the Jet Propulsion Laboratory's Ranger program produced the first close-up pictures; the Lunar Orbiter program produced maps of the entire Moon; the Surveyor program landed its first spacecraft four months after Luna 9. The crewed Apollo program was developed in parallel; after a series of uncrewed and crewed tests of the Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit, and spurred on by a potential Soviet lunar human landing, in 1968 Apollo 8 made the first human mission to lunar orbit. The subsequent landing of the first humans on the Moon in 1969 is seen by many as the culmination of the Space Race.[217]

Neil Armstrong working at the Lunar Module Eagle during Apollo 11 (1969)

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Neil Armstrong became the first person to walk on the Moon as the commander of the American mission Apollo 11 by first setting foot on the Moon at 02:56 UTC on 21 July 1969.[218] An estimated 500 million people worldwide watched the transmission by the Apollo TV camera, the largest television audience for a live broadcast at that time.[219][220] The Apollo missions 11 to 17 (except Apollo 13, which aborted its planned lunar landing) removed 380.05 kilograms (837.87 lb) of lunar rock and soil in 2,196 separate samples.[221] The American Moon landing and return was enabled by considerable technological advances in the early 1960s, in domains such as ablation chemistry, software engineering, and atmospheric re-entry technology, and by highly competent management of the enormous technical undertaking.[222][223]

Scientific instrument packages were installed on the lunar surface during all the Apollo landings. Long-lived instrument stations, including heat flow probes, seismometers, and magnetometers, were installed at the Apollo 12, 14, 15, 16, and 17 landing sites. Direct transmission of data to Earth concluded in late 1977 because of budgetary considerations,[224][225] but as the stations' lunar laser ranging corner-cube retroreflector arrays are passive instruments, they are still being used. Ranging to the stations is routinely performed from Earth-based stations with an accuracy of a few centimeters, and data from this experiment are being used to place constraints on the size of the lunar core.[226]

1970s–present

In the 1970s, after the Moon race, the focus of astronautic exploration shifted, as probes like Pioneer 10 and the Voyager program were sent towards the outer Solar System. Years of near lunar quietude followed, only broken by a beginning internationalization of space and the Moon through, for example, the negotiation of the Moon treaty.

Since the 1990s, many more countries have become involved in direct exploration of the Moon. In 1990, Japan became the third country to place a spacecraft into lunar orbit with its Hiten spacecraft. The spacecraft released a smaller probe, Hagoromo, in lunar orbit, but the transmitter failed, preventing further scientific use of the mission.[227] In 1994, the U.S. sent the joint Defense Department/NASA spacecraft Clementine to lunar orbit. This mission obtained the first near-global topographic map of the Moon, and the first global multispectral images of the lunar surface.[228] This was followed in 1998 by the Lunar Prospector mission, whose instruments indicated the presence of excess hydrogen at the lunar poles, which is likely to have been caused by the presence of water ice in the upper few meters of the regolith within permanently shadowed craters.[229]

As viewed by Chandrayaan-1's NASA Moon Mineralogy Mapper equipment, on the right, the first time discovered water-rich minerals (light blue), shown around a small crater from which it was ejected.

The European spacecraft SMART-1, the second ion-propelled spacecraft, was in lunar orbit from 15 November 2004 until its lunar impact on 3 September 2006, and made the first detailed survey of chemical elements on the lunar surface.[230]

The Chinese Lunar Exploration Program began with Chang'e 1, which successfully orbited the Moon from 5 November 2007 until its controlled lunar impact on 1 March 2009,[231] obtaining a full image map of the Moon. The Chang'e 2 mission began October 2010, mapping the surface at a higher resolution over an eight-month period. On 14 December 2013, Chang'e 3 landed a lunar lander onto the Moon's surface, which deployed a lunar rover, named Yutu (Chinese: 玉兔; literally "Jade Rabbit"). This was the first lunar rover mission since Lunokhod 2 in 1973 and the first lunar soft landing since Luna 24 in 1976. Another rover mission, Chang'e 4, was launched in 2019 and was the first spacecraft to land on the Moon's far side.[232] Chang'e 5 landed on the Moon in December 2020 and carried out China's first robotic sample return mission, bringing back 1,731 grams of lunar material to Earth.[233] Chang'e 6, another sample return mission, is planned for 2024.

Between 4 October 2007 and 10 June 2009, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency's Kaguya (Selene) mission, a lunar orbiter fitted with a high-definition video camera, and two small radio-transmitter satellites, obtained lunar geophysics data and took the first high-definition movies from beyond Earth orbit.[234][235] India's first lunar mission, Chandrayaan-1, orbited from 8 November 2008 until loss of contact on 27 August 2009, creating a high-resolution chemical, mineralogical and photo-geological map of the lunar surface, and confirming the presence of water molecules in lunar soil.[236] The Indian Space Research Organisation planned to launch Chandrayaan-2 in 2013, which would have included a Russian robotic lunar rover.[237][238] However, the failure of Russia's Fobos-Grunt mission has delayed this project, and was launched on 22 July 2019. The lander Vikram attempted to land on the lunar south pole region on 6 September, but lost the signal in 2.1 km (1.3 mi). What happened after that is unknown.

The U.S. co-launched the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) and the LCROSS impactor and follow-up observation orbiter on 18 June 2009; LCROSS completed its mission by making a planned and widely observed impact in the crater Cabeus on 9 October 2009,[239] whereas LRO is currently in operation, obtaining precise lunar altimetry and high-resolution imagery. In November 2011, the LRO passed over the large and bright crater Aristarchus. NASA released photos of the crater on 25 December 2011.[240]

Two NASA GRAIL spacecraft began orbiting the Moon around 1 January 2012,[241] on a mission to learn more about the Moon's internal structure. NASA's LADEE probe, designed to study the lunar exosphere, achieved orbit on 6 October 2013.

Future

See also: List of proposed missions to the Moon

Upcoming lunar missions include Russia's Luna-Glob: an uncrewed lander with a set of seismometers, and an orbiter based on its failed Martian Fobos-Grunt mission.[242] Privately funded lunar exploration has been promoted by the Google Lunar X Prize, announced 13 September 2007, which offers US$20 million to anyone who can land a robotic rover on the Moon and meet other specified criteria.[243]

NASA began to plan to resume human missions following the call by U.S. President George W. Bush on 14 January 2004 for a human mission to the Moon by 2019 and the construction of a lunar base by 2024.[244] The Constellation program was funded and construction and testing begun on a crewed spacecraft and launch vehicle,[245] and design studies for a lunar base.[246] That program was cancelled in 2010, however, and was eventually replaced with the Donald Trump supported Artemis program, which plans to return humans to the Moon by 2025.[247] India had also expressed its hope to send people to the Moon by 2020.[248]

On 28 February 2018, SpaceX, Vodafone, Nokia and Audi announced a collaboration to install a 4G wireless communication network on the Moon, with the aim of streaming live footage on the surface to Earth.[249]

Recent reports indicate NASA's planned mid-2020s mission to the moon will include a female astronaut.[250]

Planned commercial missions

In 2007, the X Prize Foundation together with Google launched the Google Lunar X Prize to encourage commercial endeavors to the Moon. A prize of $20 million was to be awarded to the first private venture to get to the Moon with a robotic lander by the end of March 2018, with additional prizes worth $10 million for further milestones.[251][252] As of August 2016, 16 teams were reportedly participating in the competition.[253] In January 2018 the foundation announced that the prize would go unclaimed as none of the finalist teams would be able to make a launch attempt by the deadline.[254]

In August 2016, the US government granted permission to US-based start-up Moon Express to land on the Moon.[255] This marked the first time that a private enterprise was given the right to do so. The decision is regarded as a precedent helping to define regulatory standards for deep-space commercial activity in the future. Previously, private companies were restricted to operating on or around Earth.[255]

On 29 November 2018 NASA announced that nine commercial companies would compete to win a contract to send small payloads to the Moon in what is known as Commercial Lunar Payload Services. According to NASA administrator Jim Bridenstine, "We are building a domestic American capability to get back and forth to the surface of the moon.".[256]

Human presence

See also: Human presence in space

Human impact

See also: List of artificial objects on the Moon, Space art § Art in space, and Planetary protection § Category V

Remains of human activity, Apollo 17's Lunar Surface Experiments Package

Beside the remains of human activity on the Moon, there have been some intended permanent installations like the Moon Museum art piece, Apollo 11 goodwill messages, six Lunar plaques, the Fallen Astronaut memorial, and other artifacts.

Pollution and contamination

While the Moon has the lowest planetary protection target-categorization, its degradation as a pristine body and scientific place has been discussed[257] and particularly understood regarding keeping the Shielded Zone of the Moon (SZM), of value for astronomy from the Moon, free from any radio spectrum pollution, as well as conserving the special and scientifically interesting nature of the Moon, in face of prospecting commercial and national projects to claim and exploit the Moon.[258]

The so-called "Tardigrade affair" of the 2019 crashed Beresheet lander and its carrying of tardigrades has been discussed as an example for lacking measures and lacking international regulation for planetary protection.[258]

Infrastructure

Main article: Moonbase

See also: Space infrastructure, Lunar habitation, Tourism on the Moon, and Lunar resources § Mining

A photo of the reflector of the Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment of Apollo 11, still in use.

Longterm missions continuing to be active are some orbiters such as the 2009-launched Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter surveilling the Moon for future missions, as well as some Landers such as the 2013-launched Chang'e 3 with its Lunar Ultraviolet Telescope still operational.[259]

There are several missions by different agencies and companies planned to establish a longterm human presence on the Moon, with the Lunar Gateway as the currently most advanced project as part of the Artemis program.

Astronomy from the Moon

Further information: Extraterrestrial sky § The Moon

For many years, the Moon has been recognized as an excellent site for telescopes.[260] It is relatively nearby; astronomical seeing is not a concern; certain craters near the poles are permanently dark and cold, and thus especially useful for infrared telescopes; and radio telescopes on the far side would be shielded from the radio chatter of Earth.[261] The lunar soil, although it poses a problem for any moving parts of telescopes, can be mixed with carbon nanotubes and epoxies and employed in the construction of mirrors up to 50 meters in diameter.[262] A lunar zenith telescope can be made cheaply with an ionic liquid.[263]

In April 1972, the Apollo 16 mission recorded various astronomical photos and spectra in ultraviolet with the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph.[264]

Living on the Moon

Main article: Lunar habitation

Humans have stayed for days on the Moon, such as during Apollo 17[265] in an Apollo Lunar Module, which have been sofar the only extraterrestrial surface habitats. One particular challenge for astronauts' daily life during their stay on the surface is the lunar dust sticking to their suits and being carried into their quarters. Subsequently, the dust was tasted and smelled by the astronauts, calling it the "Apollo aroma".[266] This contamination poses a danger since the fine lunar dust can cause health issues.[266]

In 2019 at least one plant seed sprouted in an experiment, carried along with other small life from Earth on the Chang'e 4 lander in its Lunar Micro Ecosystem.[267]

Legal status

See also: Space law, Politics of outer space, Colonization of the Moon, and Space advocacy

Although Luna landers scattered pennants of the Soviet Union on the Moon, and U.S. flags were symbolically planted at their landing sites by the Apollo astronauts, no nation claims ownership of any part of the Moon's surface.[268] Russia, China, India, and the U.S. are party to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty,[269] which defines the Moon and all outer space as the "province of all mankind".[268] This treaty also restricts the use of the Moon to peaceful purposes, explicitly banning military installations and weapons of mass destruction.[270] The 1979 Moon Agreement was created to restrict the exploitation of the Moon's resources by any single nation, but as of January 2020, it has been signed and ratified by only 18 nations,[271] none of which engages in self-launched human space exploration. Although several individuals have made claims to the Moon in whole or in part, none of these are considered credible.[272][273][274]

In 2020, U.S. President Donald Trump signed an executive order called "Encouraging International Support for the Recovery and Use of Space Resources". The order emphasizes that "the United States does not view outer space as a 'global commons'" and calls the Moon Agreement "a failed attempt at constraining free enterprise."[275][276]

In the face of such increasing commercial and national interest, particularly prospecting territories, US lawmakers have introduced regulation for the conservation of historic landing sites[277] and interest groups have argued for making such sites World Heritage Sites[278] and zones of scientific value protected zones, all of which add to the legal availability and territorialization of the Moon.[258]

The Declaration of the Rights of the Moon[279] was created by a group of "lawyers, space archaeologists and concerned citizens" in 2021, drawing on precedents in the Rights of Nature movement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space.[280]

Coordination

In light of future development on the Moon some international and multi-space agency organizations have been created:

International Lunar Exploration Working Group (ILEWG)

Moon Village Association (MVA)

International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG)

In culture and life

The Venus of Laussel (c. 25,000 BP) holding a crescent shaped horn, the 13 notches on the horn may symbolize the number of days from menstruation to ovulation, or of menstrual cycles or moons per year.[281][282]

Calendar

Further information: Lunar calendar, Lunisolar calendar, Metonic cycle, Blue moon, and Movable feast

The Moon's regular phases make it a convenient timepiece, and the periods of its waxing and waning form the basis of many of the oldest calendars. Tally sticks, notched bones dating as far back as 20–30,000 years ago, are believed by some to mark the phases of the Moon.[283][284][285] The ~30-day month is an approximation of the lunar cycle. The English noun month and its cognates in other Germanic languages stem from Proto-Germanic *mǣnṓth-, which is connected to the above-mentioned Proto-Germanic *mǣnōn, indicating the usage of a lunar calendar among the Germanic peoples (Germanic calendar) prior to the adoption of a solar calendar.[286] The PIE root of moon, *méh1nōt, derives from the PIE verbal root *meh1-, "to measure", "indicat[ing] a functional conception of the Moon, i.e. marker of the month" (cf. the English words measure and menstrual),[287][288][289] and echoing the Moon's importance to many ancient cultures in measuring time (see the Chinese pictographic logogram 月, Latin mensis and Ancient Greek μείς (meis) or μήν (mēn), meaning "month").[290][291][292][293] Most historical calendars are lunisolar. The 7th-century Islamic calendar is an example of a purely lunar calendar, where months are traditionally determined by the visual sighting of the hilal, or earliest crescent moon, over the horizon.[294]

Many festivities celebrate or use the Moon, particularly the Full Moon of autumnal equinox called Harvest Moon.

A Mooncake, given to people at the Harvest Moon Festival, the second most important celebration of the Chinese Lunar Calendar, after Chinese New Year.

Mythology and art

Further information: Lunar deity, Selene, Luna (goddess), Crescent, and Man in the Moon

See also: Moon magic

Lunar deities

Sumerian cylinder seal and impression, dated c. 2100 BC, of Ḫašḫamer, ensi (governor) of Iškun-Sin c. 2100 BC. The seated figure is probably king Ur-Nammu, bestowing the governorship on Ḫašḫamer, who is led before him by Lamma (protective goddess). Nanna/Sîn himself is indicated in the form of a crescent.

Luna on the Parabiago plate (2nd–5th century), featuring the crescent crown and chariot lunar aspect found in different cultures.

Rabbits are in a range of cultures identified with the Moon, from China to the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas, as with the rabbit (on the left) of the Maya moon goddess (6th–9th century).

From top: examples of lunar deities featuring around the world recurring aspects, like the crescent (Nanna/Sîn, c. 2100 BC), crescent headgear and chariot (Luna, 2nd–5th century), as well as the Moon rabbit (Mayan moon goddess, 6th–9th century).[295]

Since prehistoric and ancient times many cultures view the Moon astrologically and have personified the Moon as a deity.

For example in Mesopotamian iconography the primary symbol of Nanna/Sîn,[296] the ancient Sumerian lunar deity.[297][296] who was the father of Innana/Ishtar, the goddess of the planet Venus (symbolized as the eight pointed Star of Ishtar),[297][296] and Utu/Shamash, the god of the Sun (symbolized as a disc, optionally with eight rays),[297][296] all three often depicted next to each other. Nanna was later known as Sîn,[296][297] and was particularly associated with magic and sorcery.[297]

The crescent was further used as an element of lunar deities wearing headgears or crowns in an arrangement reminiscent of horns, as in the case of the ancient Greek Selene[298][299] or the ancient Egyptian Khonsu. Selene is associated with Artemis and paralleled by the Roman Luna, which both are occasionally depicted driving a chariot, like the Hindu lunar deity Chandra. The different or sharing aspects of deities within pantheons has been observed in many cultures, especially by later or contemporary culture, particularly forming triple deities. The Moon in Roman mythology for example has been associated with Juno and Diana, while Luna being identified as their byname and as part of a triplet (diva triformis) with Diana and Proserpina, Hecate being identified as their binding manifestation as trimorphos.

Particularly attributed to Muhammad is also the so-called splitting of the Moon (Arabic: انشقاق القمر) miracle.[301] In Roman Catholic Marian veneration, the Virgin Mary (Queen of Heaven) has been depicted since the late middle ages on a crescent and adorned with stars.

The contrast between the brighter highlands and the darker maria creates the patterns seen by different cultures as the Man in the Moon, the rabbit (e.g. the Chinese Tu'er Ye or in Indigenous American mythologies, as with the aspect of the Mayan Moon goddess) and the buffalo, among others. The European iconographic tradition of representing Sun and Moon with faces developed in the late middle ages.

Modern representation and attribution

See also: Moon in science fiction and List of appearances of the Moon in fiction

The perception of the Moon in modern times has been informed by the telescope enabled modern astronomy observation of the surface of the Moon, subsequent mapping and eventual actual scientific lunar exploration by the culturally impactful lunar landings. These new insights inspired and intertwined with established cultural references of the Moon and allowed science-fiction to become established, particularly science-fiction dealing with the Moon[302][303] and its possible environment and life, but also connecting with romantic reflections about the Moon.[304]

In face of prospecting commercialization of the Moon has the Moon not only gained public interest, but has also seen public and critical reflection on humanity's cultural and subsequently legal relation to the celestial body, questioning colonization, in this case of the Moon's nature, with reflections like the 1970 poem "Whitey on the Moon" or advocacy for conservation of the Moon and for its inorganic nature as a common.[258]

A song titled "Moon Anthem" by Abhay Kumar, paralleling the proposals for an Earth Anthem, was released 2019 on the occasion of India's lunar probe Chandrayaan-2.[305][306]

The Moon is prominently featured in Vincent van Gogh's 1889 painting, The Starry Night (left). An iconic image of the Man in the Moon from the first science-fiction film set in space, A Trip to the Moon (1902), inspired by a history of books cumulating with Jules Verne.

Lunar effect

Main article: Lunar effect

The lunar effect is a purported unproven correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. The Moon has long been associated with insanity and irrationality; the words lunacy and lunatic are derived from the Latin name for the Moon, Luna. Philosophers Aristotle and Pliny the Elder argued that the full moon induced insanity in susceptible individuals, believing that the brain, which is mostly water, must be affected by the Moon and its power over the tides, but the Moon's gravity is too slight to affect any single person.[307] Even today, people who believe in a lunar effect claim that admissions to psychiatric hospitals, traffic accidents, homicides or suicides increase during a full moon, but dozens of studies invalidate these claims.[307][308][309][310][311]

See also

List of natural satellites

Explanatory notes

Between 18.29° and 28.58° to Earth's equator.[1]

There are a number of near-Earth asteroids, including 3753 Cruithne, that are co-orbital with Earth: their orbits bring them close to Earth for periods of time but then alter in the long term (Morais et al, 2002). These are quasi-satellites – they are not moons as they do not orbit Earth. For more information, see Other moons of Earth.

The maximum value is given based on scaling of the brightness from the value of −12.74 given for an equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km in the NASA factsheet reference to the minimum Earth–Moon distance given there, after the latter is corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km. The minimum value (for a distant new moon) is based on a similar scaling using the maximum Earth–Moon distance of 407 000 km (given in the factsheet) and by calculating the brightness of the earthshine onto such a new moon. The brightness of the earthshine is [ Earth albedo × (Earth radius / Radius of Moon's orbit)2 ] relative to the direct solar illumination that occurs for a full moon. (Earth albedo = 0.367; Earth radius = (polar radius × equatorial radius)½ = 6 367 km.)

The range of angular size values given are based on simple scaling of the following values given in the fact sheet reference: at an Earth-equator to Moon-centre distance of 378 000 km, the angular size is 1896 arcseconds. The same fact sheet gives extreme Earth–Moon distances of 407 000 km and 357 000 km. For the maximum angular size, the minimum distance has to be corrected for Earth's equatorial radius of 6 378 km, giving 350 600 km.

Lucey et al. (2006) give 107 particles cm−3 by day and 105 particles cm−3 by night. Along with equatorial surface temperatures of 390 K by day and 100 K by night, the ideal gas law yields the pressures given in the infobox (rounded to the nearest order of magnitude): 10−7 Pa by day and 10−10 Pa by night.

Charon is larger with respect to Pluto, but Pluto is a dwarf planet.

More accurately, the Moon's mean sidereal period (fixed star to fixed star) is 27.321661 days (27 d 07 h 43 min 11.5 s), and its mean tropical orbital period (from equinox to equinox) is 27.321582 days (27 d 07 h 43 min 04.7 s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).

More accurately, the Moon's mean synodic period (between mean solar conjunctions) is 29.530589 days (29 d 12 h 44 min 02.9 s) (Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris, 1961, at p.107).

There is no strong correlation between the sizes of planets and the sizes of their satellites. Larger planets tend to have more satellites, both large and small, than smaller planets.

With 27% the diameter and 60% the density of Earth, the Moon has 1.23% of the mass of Earth. The moon Charon is larger relative to its primary Pluto, but Pluto is now considered to be a dwarf planet.

The Sun's apparent magnitude is −26.7, while the full moon's apparent magnitude is −12.7.

See graph in Sun#Life phases. At present, the diameter of the Sun is increasing at a rate of about five percent per billion years. This is very similar to the rate at which the apparent angular diameter of the Moon is decreasing as it recedes from Earth.

On average, the Moon covers an area of 0.21078 square degrees on the night sky.

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"It seems possible, though not certain, that after the conquest Mehmed took over the crescent and star as an emblem of sovereignty from the Byzantines. The half-moon alone on a blood red flag, allegedly conferred on the Janissaries by Emir Orhan, was much older, as is demonstrated by numerous references to it dating from before 1453. But since these flags lack the star, which along with the half-moon is to be found on Sassanid and Byzantine municipal coins, it may be regarded as an innovation of Mehmed. It seems certain that in the interior of Asia tribes of Turkish nomads had been using the half-moon alone as an emblem for some time past, but it is equally certain that crescent and star together are attested only for a much later period. There is good reason to believe that old Turkish and Byzantine traditions were combined in the emblem of Ottoman and, much later, present-day Republican Turkish sovereignty." Franz Babinger (William C. Hickman Ed., Ralph Manheim Trans.), Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time, Princeton University Press, 1992, p 108

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Ahead Of Chandrayaan 2 Landing, Poet-Diplomat Writes "Moon Anthem" Archived 20 September 2019 at the Wayback Machine NDTV, 6 Sept.2019

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Further reading

Angier, Natalie (7 September 2014). "The Moon Comes Around Again". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 September 2014. Retrieved 8 September 2014.

"The Moon". Discovery 2008. BBC World Service. Retrieved 9 May 2021.

Bussey, B.; Spudis, P.D. (2004). The Clementine Atlas of the Moon. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-81528-4.

Cain, Fraser. "Where does the Moon Come From?". Universe Today. Retrieved 9 May 2021. (podcast and transcript)

Jolliff, B. (2006). Wieczorek, M.; Shearer, C.; Neal, C. (eds.). New views of the Moon. Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry. 60. Chantilly, Virginia: Mineralogy Society of America. p. 721. Bibcode:2006RvMG...60D...5J. doi:10.2138/rmg.2006.60.0. ISBN 978-0-939950-72-0. Archived from the original on 27 June 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.

Jones, E. M. (2006). "Apollo Lunar Surface Journal". NASA. Retrieved 9 May 2021.

"Exploring the Moon". Lunar and Planetary Institute. Retrieved 9 May 2021.

Mackenzie, Dana (2003). The Big Splat, or How Our Moon Came to Be. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-15057-2. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2019.

Moore, P. (2001). On the Moon. Tucson, Arizona: Sterling Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-304-35469-6.

"Moon Articles". Planetary Science Research Discoveries. Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2006.

Spudis, P.D. (1996). The Once and Future Moon. Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 978-1-56098-634-8. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2019.

Taylor, S.R. (1992). Solar system evolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-521-37212-1.

Teague, K. (2006). "The Project Apollo Archive". Archived from the original on 4 April 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.

Wilhelms, D.E. (1987). "Geologic History of the Moon". U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper. Professional Paper. 1348. doi:10.3133/pp1348. Archived from the original on 23 February 2019. Retrieved 12 April 2007.

Wilhelms, D.E. (1993). To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-1065-8. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2009.

External links

Moon

at Wikipedia's sister projects

Definitions from Wiktionary

Media from Commons

News from Wikinews

Quotations from Wikiquote

Texts from Wikisource

Textbooks from Wikibooks

Travel guides from Wikivoyage

Resources from Wikiversity

NASA images and videos about the Moon

Albums of images and high-resolution overflight videos by Seán Doran, based on LROC data, on Flickr and YouTube

Video (04:56) – The Moon in 4K (NASA, April 2018) on YouTube

Video (04:47) – The Moon in 3D (NASA, July 2018) on YouTube

Cartographic resources

Unified Geologic Map of the Moon – United States Geological Survey

Moon Trek – An integrated map browser of datasets and maps for the Moon

The Moon on Google Maps, a 3-D rendition of the Moon akin to Google Earth

"Consolidated Lunar Atlas". Lunar and Planetary Institute. Retrieved 26 February 2012.

Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature (USGS) List of feature names.

"Clementine Lunar Image Browser". U.S. Navy. 15 October 2003. Retrieved 12 April 2007.

3D zoomable globes:

"Google Moon". 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.

"Moon". World Wind Central. NASA. 2007. Retrieved 12 April 2007.

Aeschliman, R. "Lunar Maps". Planetary Cartography and Graphics. Retrieved 12 April 2007. Maps and panoramas at Apollo landing sites

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) Kaguya (Selene) images

Lunar Earthside chart (4497 x 3150px)

Large image of the Moon's north pole area Archived 23 August 2016 at the Wayback Machine

Large image of Moon's south pole area (1000x1000px)

Observation tools

"NASA's SKYCAL – Sky Events Calendar". NASA. Archived from the original on 20 August 2007. Retrieved 27 August 2007.

"Find moonrise, moonset and moonphase for a location". 2008. Retrieved 18 February 2008.

"HMNAO's Moon Watch". 2005. Retrieved 24 May 2009. See when the next new crescent moon is visible for any location.

General

Lunar shelter (building a lunar base with 3D printing)

vte

The Moon

vte

Earth

vte

Natural satellites of the Solar System

vte

Solar System

Portals:

Solar System

Astronomy

Stars

Spaceflight

Outer space

Authority control Edit this at Wikidata

Categories: Solar SystemMoonMoonsAstronomical objects known since antiquityPlanetary satellite systemsPlanetary-mass satellites

The star and crescent () arrangement also goes back to the Bronze Age, representing either the Sun and Moon, or the Moon and planet Venus, in combination. It came to represent the goddess Artemis or Hecate, and via the patronage of Hecate came to be used as a symbol of Byzantium, possibly influencing the development of the Ottoman flag, specifically the combination of the Turkish crescent with a star.[300] Other historic states and contemporarily a range of municipal and national flags employ the symbol of star and crescent. Many but not all employ the star and crescent since it (as the hilal of the Islamic calendar) has been identified as a symbol for Islam.

The crescent () is a symbol used by many cultures, particularly as an identifier for the Moon and its appearance, especially its lunar phases, but also its pale colour, e.g. for silver by Western alchemy.

Cymer, LLC., an ASML Holding company, is an American company headquartered in San Diego, California. Cymer is the largest supplier of deep ultraviolet (DUV) light sources used by chipmakers to pattern advanced semiconductor chips or integrated circuits.

Cymer is currently developing next-generation laser-produced plasma extreme ultraviolet (EUV) light sources.

As of October 2012, it was announced that Cymer would be acquired by Dutch semiconductor equipment manufacturer ASML. The acquisition closed in May 2013. Cymer now operates as an independent subsidiary.[1]

Cymer San Diego Headquarters Building 6

Cymer San Diego Headquarters Building 4

Contents

1 Corporate History

2 Products and Technology

3 Cymer in the Community

4 References

5 External links

Corporate History

Cymer was founded in 1986 by Dr. Robert Akins and Dr. Richard Sandstrom, who met in the mid-1970s in a lab class at the University of California, San Diego. In 1986, the personal computer market opened a door for Akins and Sandstrom to apply their unique laser knowledge for the purpose of semiconductor photolithography.

In 1988, Cymer shipped its first light source for advanced research and development applications to support the development of semiconductor lithography. In 1990, a second-generation light source shipped, and the company quickly progressed, shipping a total of 78 light source systems between 1988 and 1994.

In the mid-1990s, Cymer had established its light sources as a necessary component in the development of advanced semiconductor products, and demand for its light sources began to increase. To meet this demand, Cymer issued its initial public offering on the NASDAQ in September 1996 under the symbol CYMI. The company's IPO helped provide the capital Cymer needed to grow manufacturing capacity and service infrastructure as needed to meet the industry's rapid expansion.

In the dot-com boom of 2000, Cymer sold an annual high of 494 new light source systems, and in 2002 the company shipped its 2000th light source. By the end of the decade, Cymer had shipped more than 3,300 KrF (248 nm) and ArF (193 nm) and ArF Immersion light sources world-wide.

In June 2009, Cymer shipped the world's first fully integrated LPP (laser produced plasma) EUV lithography light source to ASML Holding in Veldhoven, Netherlands, for integration into its EUV scanner.[2] This new type of light source produces a wavelength of 13.5 nm and will be used to pattern chips for at least the next decade.[3]

In July 2005, TCZ was formed as a joint venture between Cymer, Inc. and Carl Zeiss SMT AG to develop and manufacture a silicon crystallization process tool for use in the production of flat panel displays and OLED displays. The crystallization tool uses Cymer's light source technology. In January 2010, Cymer announced that it would acquire Carl Zeiss' ownership interest in the Cymer/Zeiss TCZ joint venture, making TCZ a wholly owned Cymer company. In October 2012, Cymer announced it was discontinuing its TCZ business.

In October 2012, Dutch semiconductor equipment manufacturer ASML announced that it would acquire Cymer, as part of their EUV equipment strategy. The acquisition closed in May 2013.

Products and Technology

DUV Products

Cymer's light sources, which comprise an installed base of more than 3,750 shipped systems, are based on KrF and ArF technology that deliver 248 nm and 193 nm light, respectively. Light at these wavelengths is produced when an electrical discharge is applied to a mixture of gases (Krypton and Fluorine (KrF) or Argon and Fluorine (ArF)). The resulting light is collected and delivered to a scanning exposure tool which is used to pattern silicon wafers. Cymer's DUV product line by technology includes:

Technology Wavelength Product Application

ArF Immersion 193 nm XLR 600ix Multiple patterning and immersion lithography, 32nm node and below

ArF Immersion 193 nm XLR 500i Immersion lithography, 45nm and 65nm node

ArF Dry 193 nm XLA 105 HP Dry lithography, 65 nm and 90nm node

KrF 248 nm ELS 7010x Dry lithography, 130 nm and 180 nm node

KrF 248 nm ELS 7010 Dry lithography, sub-100 nm node

KrF 248 nm ELS 6010 Dry lithography, sub-100 nm node

KrF 248 nm ELS 5010 Dry lithography, sub-100 nm node

Installed Base Products

Light sources installed at chipmaker fabs are maintained through Cymer's OnPulse support product offering. OnPulse optimizes light source availability and productivity for the chipmaker. New light source feature enhancements are made available through OnPulse and include support from Cymer's field support organization and IT infrastructure.

Cymer offers two data collection, reporting and analysis products to enable tighter process control and improved wafer quality. OnPulse Plus provides real-time light source parameter monitoring (i.e., energy, wavelength, bandwidth) and lot-level event correlation to avoid excursions and prevent diminished yield. SmartPulse delivers wafer-level light source parameter monitoring and on-board beam metrology to optimize the lithography process. OnPulse Plus is available for all XL-series and ELS 7000 and 6000 series. SmartPulse is available for all XL-series light sources.

LPP EUV Products

Cymer is developing a new generation of light source to enable advanced lithography beyond the capability of DUV light sources. LPP EUV light sources produce 13.5 nm ultraviolet light by targeting small droplets of molten tin with a pulsed, high-powered CO2 laser.[4][5] The resulting plasma produces the 13.5 nm light which is collected and delivered to a scanner that is used to image circuit patterns on silicon wafers. EUV light sources will enable photolithography below the 22 nm node and support Moore's Law.

In June 2020, Cymer introduced equipment to decrease edge-placement error via reduction of speckle contrast using argon fluoride lasers.[6]

Cymer in the Community

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Cymer supports a number of philanthropic organizations and events in San Diego County in five areas.[citation needed]

Cymer volunteers at a civic event at the San Diego Food Bank

Education - Co-founders Robert Akins and Richard Sandstrom received their Ph.D.s from the University of California, San Diego prior to starting Cymer in 1986. Since then Cymer has supported the University and multiple non-profit organizations aimed at promoting excellence in education and in recognition of student scholars from all levels of education.

Health - Through corporate giving and the volunteerism of employees, Cymer supports health foundations that strive to find cures for life-altering diseases.

Culture - Cymer seeks out and supports organizations that foster creativity in the arts and that provide opportunities for the local community to experience multiple forms of creative expression.

Environment - Cymer supports initiatives aimed at responsible disposal of electronic waste and the promotion of alternative approaches that reduce the environmental impact of technology innovation.

Civic - Cymer previously supported civic initiatives that help provide a safety net for those less fortunate.[7][8]

For other uses, see Citrus (disambiguation).

Citrus

Temporal range: Tortonian–Present, 8–0 Ma[1]

PreꞒꞒOSDCPTJKPgN

OrangeBloss wb.jpg

Sweet orange (Citrus × sinensis cultivar)

Scientific classificatione

Kingdom: Plantae

Clade: Tracheophytes

Clade: Angiosperms

Clade: Eudicots

Clade: Rosids

Order: Sapindales

Family: Rutaceae

Subfamily: Aurantioideae

Genus: Citrus

L.

Species and hybrids

Ancestral species:

Citrus maxima – Pomelo

Citrus medica – Citron

Citrus reticulata – Mandarin orange

Citrus micrantha – a papeda

Citrus hystrix – Kaffir lime

Citrus cavaleriei – Ichang papeda

Citrus japonica – Kumquat

Important hybrids:

Citrus × aurantiifolia – Key lime

Citrus × aurantium – Bitter orange

Citrus × latifolia – Persian lime

Citrus × limon – Lemon

Citrus × limonia – Rangpur

Citrus × paradisi – Grapefruit

Citrus × sinensis – Sweet orange

Citrus × tangerina – Tangerine

See also below for other species and hybrids.

Synonyms[2]

Aurantium Mill.

Citreum Mill.

×Citrofortunella J.W.Ingram & H.E.Moore

×Citroncirus J.W.Ingram & H.E.Moore

Citrophorum Neck.

Eremocitrus Swingle

Feroniella Swingle

Fortunella Swingle

Limon Mill.

Microcitrus Swingle

Oxanthera Montrouz.

Papeda Hassk.

Pleurocitrus Tanaka

Poncirus Raf.

Pseudaegle Miq.

Sarcodactilis C.F.Gaertn.

Citrus is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the rue family, Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. The genus Citrus is native to South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Melanesia, and Australia. Various citrus species have been used and domesticated by indigenous cultures in these areas since ancient times. From there its cultivation spread into Micronesia and Polynesia by the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000–1500 BCE); and to the Middle East and the Mediterranean (c. 1200 BCE) via the incense trade route, and onwards to Europe.[3][4][5][6]

Contents

1 History

1.1 Etymology

1.2 Evolution

1.3 Fossil record

2 Taxonomy

3 Description

3.1 Tree

3.2 Fruit

4 Cultivation

4.1 Production

4.2 As ornamental plants

4.3 Pests and diseases

4.3.1 Deficiency diseases

5 Uses

5.1 Culinary

5.2 Phytochemicals and research

6 List of citrus fruits

6.1 Hybrids and cultivars

7 See also

8 References

9 External links

History

Citrus plants are native to subtropical and tropical regions of Asia, Island Southeast Asia, Near Oceania, and northeastern Australia. Domestication of citrus species involved much hybridization and introgression, leaving much uncertainty about when and where domestication first happened.[3] A genomic, phylogenic, and biogeographical analysis by Wu et al. (2018) has shown that the center of origin of the genus Citrus is likely the southeast foothills of the Himalayas, in a region stretching from eastern Assam, northern Myanmar, to western Yunnan. It diverged from a common ancestor with Poncirus trifoliata. A change in climate conditions during the Late Miocene (11.63 to 5.33 mya) resulted in a sudden speciation event. The species resulting from this event include the citrons (Citrus medica) of South Asia; the pomelos (C. maxima) of Mainland Southeast Asia; the mandarins (C. reticulata), kumquats (C. japonica), mangshanyegan (C. mangshanensis), and ichang papedas (C. cavaleriei) of southeastern China; the kaffir limes (C. hystrix) of Island Southeast Asia; and the biasong and samuyao (C. micrantha) of the Philippines.[3][4]

Map of inferred original wild ranges of the main Citrus cultivars, and selected relevant wild taxa[4]

This was later followed by the spread of citrus species into Taiwan and Japan in the Early Pliocene (5.33 to 3.6 mya), resulting in the tachibana orange (C. tachibana); and beyond the Wallace Line into Papua New Guinea and Australia during the Early Pleistocene (2.5 million to 800,000 years ago), where further speciation events occurred resulting in the Australian limes.[3][4]

The earliest introductions of citrus species by human migrations was during the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000–1500 BCE), where Citrus hystrix, Citrus macroptera, and Citrus maxima were among the canoe plants carried by Austronesian voyagers eastwards into Micronesia and Polynesia.[7]

The citron (Citrus medica) was also introduced early into the Mediterranean basin from India and Southeast Asia. It was introduced via two ancient trade routes: an overland route through Persia, the Levant and the Mediterranean islands; and a maritime route through the Arabian Peninsula and Ptolemaic Egypt into North Africa. Although the exact date of the original introduction is unknown due to the sparseness of archaeobotanical remains, the earliest evidence are seeds recovered from the Hala Sultan Tekke site of Cyprus, dated to around 1200 BCE. Other archaeobotanical evidence include pollen from Carthage dating back to the 4th century BCE; and carbonized seeds from Pompeii dated to around the 3rd to 2nd century BCE. The earliest complete description of the citron was first attested from Theophrastus, c. 310 BCE.[5][6][8] The agronomists of classical Rome made many references to the cultivation of citrus fruits within the limits of their empire.[9]

Lemons, pomelos, and sour oranges are believed to have been introduced to the Mediterranean later by Arab traders at around the 10th century CE; and sweet oranges by the Genoese and Portuguese from Asia during the 15th to 16th century. Mandarins were not introduced until the 19th century.[5][6][8][9] This group of species has reached great importance in some of the Mediterranean countries, and in the case of orange, mandarin, and lemon trees, they found here soil and climatic conditions which allow them to achieve a high level of fruit quality, even better than in the regions from where they came.[9]

Oranges were introduced to Florida by Spanish colonists.[10][11]

In cooler parts of Europe, citrus fruit was grown in orangeries starting in the 17th century; many were as much status symbols as functional agricultural structures.[12]

Etymology

The generic name originated from Latin, where it referred to either the plant now known as citron (C. medica) or a conifer tree (Thuja). It is related to the ancient Greek word for cedar, κέδρος (kédros). This may be due to perceived similarities in the smell of citrus leaves and fruit with that of cedar.[13] Collectively, Citrus fruits and plants are also known by the Romance loanword agrumes (literally "sour fruits").

Evolution

The large citrus fruit of today evolved originally from small, edible berries over millions of years. Citrus species began to diverge from a common ancestor about 15 million years ago, at about the same time that Severinia (such as the Chinese box orange) diverged from the same ancestor. About 7 million years ago, the ancestors of Citrus split into the main genus, Citrus, and the genus Poncirus (such as the trifoliate orange), which is closely enough related that it can still be hybridized with all other citrus and used as rootstock. These estimates are made using genetic mapping of plant chloroplasts.[14] A DNA study published in Nature in 2018 concludes that the genus Citrus first evolved in the foothills of the Himalayas, in the area of Assam (India), western Yunnan (China), and northern Myanmar.[15]

The three ancestral (sometimes characterized as "original" or "fundamental") species in the genus Citrus associated with modern Citrus cultivars are the mandarin orange, pomelo, and citron. Almost all of the common commercially important citrus fruits (sweet oranges, lemons, grapefruit, limes, and so on) are hybrids involving these three species with each other, their main progenies, and other wild Citrus species within the last few thousand years.[3][16][17]

Fossil record

A fossil leaf from the Pliocene of Valdarno (Italy) is described as †Citrus meletensis.[18] In China, fossil leaf specimens of †Citrus linczangensis have been collected from coal-bearing strata of the Bangmai Formation in the Bangmai village, about 10 km (6 miles) northwest of Lincang City, Yunnan. The Bangmai Formation contains abundant fossil plants and is considered to be of late Miocene age. Citrus linczangensis and C. meletensis share some important characters, such as an intramarginal vein, an entire margin, and an articulated and distinctly winged petiole.[19]

Taxonomy

Main article: Citrus taxonomy

Citrus fruits clustered by genetic similarity, ternary diagram based on data from Curk, et al. (2016)[20]

Three-dimensional projection of a principal component analysis of citrus hybrids, with citron (yellow), pomelo (blue), mandarin (red), and micrantha (green) defining the axes. Hybrids are expected to plot between their parents. ML: ‘Mexican’ lime; A: ‘Alemow’; V: ‘Volkamer’ lemon; M: ‘Meyer’ lemon; L: Regular and ‘Sweet’ lemons; B: Bergamot orange; H: Haploid clementine; C: Clementines; S: Sour oranges; O: Sweet oranges; G: Grapefruits. Figure from Curk, et al. (2014).[21]

The taxonomy and systematics of the genus are complex and the precise number of natural species is unclear, as many of the named species are hybrids clonally propagated through seeds (by apomixis), and genetic evidence indicates that even some wild, true-breeding species are of hybrid origin.

Most cultivated Citrus spp. seem to be natural or artificial hybrids of a small number of core ancestral species, including the citron, pomelo, mandarin, and papeda (see image).[22] Natural and cultivated citrus hybrids include commercially important fruit such as oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, and some tangerines.

Apart from these core citrus species, Australian limes and the recently discovered mangshanyegan are grown. Kumquats and Clymenia spp. are now generally considered to belong within the genus Citrus.[23] Trifoliate orange, which is often used as commercial rootstock, is an outgroup and may or may not be categorized as a citrus.

Phylogenetic analysis suggested the species of Oxanthera from New Caledonia, commonly known as false oranges, should be transferred to the genus Citrus.[24] The transfer has been accepted.[25]

Description

Slices of various citrus fruits

Tree

These plants are large shrubs or small to moderate-sized trees, reaching 5–15 m (16–49 ft) tall, with spiny shoots and alternately arranged evergreen leaves with an entire margin.[26] The flowers are solitary or in small corymbs, each flower 2–4 cm (0.79–1.57 in) diameter, with five (rarely four) white petals and numerous stamens; they are often very strongly scented, due to the presence of essential oil glands.[27]

Fruit

The fruit is a hesperidium, a specialised berry, globose to elongated,[28] 4–30 cm (1.6–11.8 in) long and 4–20 cm (1.6–7.9 in) diameter, with a leathery rind or "peel" called a pericarp. The outermost layer of the pericarp is an "exocarp" called the flavedo, commonly referred to as the zest. The middle layer of the pericarp is the mesocarp, which in citrus fruits consists of the white, spongy "albedo", or "pith". The innermost layer of the pericarp is the endocarp. The space inside each segment is a locule filled with juice vesicles, or "pulp". From the endocarp, string-like "hairs" extend into the locules, which provide nourishment to the fruit as it develops.[29][30] Many citrus cultivars have been developed to be seedless (see nucellar embryony and parthenocarpy) and easy to peel.[28]

Citrus fruits are notable for their fragrance, partly due to flavonoids and limonoids (which in turn are terpenes) contained in the rind, and most are juice-laden. The juice contains a high quantity of citric acid and other organic acids[31] giving them their characteristic sharp flavour. The genus is commercially important as many species are cultivated for their fruit, which is eaten fresh, pressed for juice, or preserved in marmalades and pickles.

They are also good sources of vitamin C. The content of vitamin C in the fruit depends on the species, variety, and mode of cultivation.[32] The flavonoids include various flavanones and flavones.[33]

Cultivation

Further information: Citrus production

Lemons are a citrus fruit native to Asia, but now common worldwide.

Citrus trees hybridise very readily – depending on the pollen source, plants grown from a Persian lime's seeds can produce fruit similar to grapefruit. Thus, all commercial citrus cultivation uses trees produced by grafting the desired fruiting cultivars onto rootstocks selected for disease resistance and hardiness.

Limes in a grocery store

The colour of citrus fruits only develops in climates with a (diurnal) cool winter.[34] In tropical regions with no winter at all, citrus fruits remain green until maturity, hence the tropical "green oranges".[35] The Persian lime in particular is extremely sensitive to cool conditions, thus it is not usually exposed to cool enough conditions to develop a mature colour.[citation needed] If they are left in a cool place over winter, the fruits will change colour to yellow.

The terms "ripe" and "mature" are usually used synonymously, but they mean different things. A mature fruit is one that has completed its growth phase. Ripening is the changes that occur within the fruit after it is mature to the beginning of decay. These changes usually involve starches converting to sugars, a decrease in acids, softening, and change in the fruit's colour.[36]

Citrus fruits are nonclimacteric and respiration slowly declines and the production and release of ethylene is gradual.[37] The fruits do not go through a ripening process in the sense that they become "tree ripe". Some fruits, for example cherries, physically mature and then continue to ripen on the tree. Other fruits, such as pears, are picked when mature, but before they ripen, then continue to ripen off the tree. Citrus fruits pass from immaturity to maturity to overmaturity while still on the tree. Once they are separated from the tree, they do not increase in sweetness or continue to ripen. The only way change may happen after being picked is that they eventually start to decay.

With oranges, colour cannot be used as an indicator of ripeness because sometimes the rinds turn orange long before the oranges are ready to eat. Tasting them is the only way to know whether they are ready to eat.

Mediterranean Mandarin (Citrus ×deliciosa plantation, Son Carrió (Mallorca)

Citrus trees are not generally frost hardy. Mandarin oranges (C. reticulata) tend to be the hardiest of the common Citrus species and can withstand short periods down to as cold as −10 °C (14 °F), but realistically temperatures not falling below −2 °C (28 °F) are required for successful cultivation. Tangerines, tangors and yuzu can be grown outside even in regions with more marked subfreezing temperatures in winter, although this may affect fruit quality. A few hardy hybrids can withstand temperatures well below freezing, but do not produce quality fruit. Lemons can be commercially grown in cooler-summer/moderate-winter, coastal Southern California, because sweetness is neither attained nor expected in retail lemon fruit. The related trifoliate orange (C. trifoliata) can survive below −20 °C (−4 °F); its fruit are astringent and inedible unless cooked, but a few better-tasting cultivars and hybrids have been developed (see citranges).

Leaf of Citrus tree

The trees thrive in a consistently sunny, humid environment with fertile soil and adequate rainfall or irrigation. Abandoned trees in valleys may suffer, yet survive, the dry summer of Central California's Inner Coast Ranges. At any age, citrus grows well enough with infrequent irrigation in partial shade, but the fruit crop is smaller. Being of tropical and subtropical origin, oranges, like all citrus, are broadleaved and evergreen. They do not drop leaves except when stressed. The stems of many varieties have large sharp thorns. The trees flower in the spring, and fruit is set shortly afterward. Fruit begins to ripen in fall or early winter, depending on cultivar, and develops increasing sweetness afterward. Some cultivars of tangerines ripen by winter. Some, such as the grapefruit, may take up to 18 months to ripen.

Production

See also: Citrus production

Major producer regions

According to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization, world production of all citrus fruits in 2016 was 124 million tons, with about half of this production as oranges.[38] According to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), citrus production grew during the early 21st century mainly by the increase in cultivation areas, improvements in transportation and packaging, rising incomes and consumer preference for healthy foods.[38] In 2019–20, world production of oranges was estimated to be 47.5 million tons, led by Brazil, Mexico, the European Union, and China as the largest producers.[39]

As ornamental plants

Orangery of the Botanical Garden in Leuven (Belgium)

Citrus trees grown in tubs and wintered under cover were a feature of Renaissance gardens, once glass-making technology enabled sufficient expanses of clear glass to be produced. An orangery was a feature of royal and aristocratic residences through the 17th and 18th centuries. The Orangerie at the Palace of the Louvre, 1617, inspired imitations that were not eclipsed until the development of the modern greenhouse in the 1840s. In the United States, the earliest surviving orangery is at the Tayloe House, Mount Airy, Virginia. George Washington had an orangery at Mount Vernon.

Some modern hobbyists still grow dwarf citrus in containers or greenhouses in areas where the weather is too cold to grow it outdoors. Consistent climate, sufficient sunlight, and proper watering are crucial if the trees are to thrive and produce fruit. Compared to many of the usual "green shrubs", citrus trees better tolerate poor container care. For cooler winter areas, limes and lemons should not be grown, since they are more sensitive to winter cold than other citrus fruits. Hybrids with kumquats (× Citrofortunella) have good cold resistance. A citrus tree in a container may have to be repotted every 5 years or so, since the roots may form a thick "root-ball" on the bottom of the pot.[40]

Pests and diseases

Main article: List of citrus diseases

Citrus canker is caused by the gammaproteobacterium Xanthomonas axonopodis

Citrus plants are very liable to infestation by aphids, whitefly, and scale insects (e.g. California red scale). Also rather important are the viral infections to which some of these ectoparasites serve as vectors such as the aphid-transmitted Citrus tristeza virus, which when unchecked by proper methods of control is devastating to citrine plantations. The newest threat to citrus groves in the United States is the Asian citrus psyllid.

The Asian citrus psyllid is an aphid-like insect that feeds on the leaves and stems of citrus trees and other citrus-like plants. The real danger lies in the fact that the psyllid can carry a deadly, bacterial tree disease called Huanglongbing (HLB), also known as citrus greening disease.[41]

In August 2005, citrus greening disease was discovered in the south Florida region around Homestead and Florida City. The disease has since spread to every commercial citrus grove in Florida. In 2004–2005, USDA statistics reported the total Florida citrus production to be 169.1 million boxes of fruit. The estimate for all Florida citrus production in the 2015–2016 season is 94.2 million boxes, a 44.3% drop.[42] Carolyn Slupsky, a professor of nutrition and food science at the University of California, Davis has said that "we could lose all fresh citrus within 10 to 15 years".[43]

In June 2008, the psyllid was spotted dangerously close to California – right across the international border in Tijuana, Mexico. Only a few months later, it was detected in San Diego and Imperial Counties, and has since spread to Riverside, San Bernardino, Orange, Los Angeles and Ventura Counties, sparking quarantines in those areas. The Asian citrus psyllid has also been intercepted coming into California in packages of fruit and plants, including citrus, ornamentals, herbs and bouquets of cut flowers, shipped from other states and countries.[41]

The foliage is also used as a food plant by the larvae of Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species such as the Geometridae common emerald (Hemithea aestivaria) and double-striped pug (Gymnoscelis rufifasciata), the Arctiidae giant leopard moth (Hypercompe scribonia), H. eridanus, H. icasia and H. indecisa, many species in the family Papilionidae (swallowtail butterflies), and the black-lyre leafroller moth ("Cnephasia" jactatana), a tortrix moth.

Since 2000, the citrus leafminer (Phyllocnistis citrella) has been a pest in California,[44] boring meandering patterns through leaves.

In eastern Australia, the bronze-orange bug (Musgraveia sulciventris) can be a major pest of citrus trees, particularly grapefruit. In heavy infestations it can cause flower and fruit drop and general tree stress.

European brown snails (Cornu aspersum) can be a problem in California, though laying female Khaki Campbell and other mallard-related ducks can be used for control.

Deficiency diseases

Citrus plants can also develop a deficiency condition called chlorosis, characterized by yellowing leaves[45] highlighted by contrasting leaf veins. The shriveling leaves eventually fall, and if the plant loses too many, it will slowly die. This condition is often caused by an excessively high pH (alkaline soil), which prevents the plant from absorbing iron, magnesium, zinc, or other nutrients it needs to produce chlorophyll. This condition can be cured by adding an appropriate acidic fertilizer formulated for citrus, which can sometimes revive a plant to produce new leaves and even flower buds within a few weeks under optimum conditions. A soil which is too acidic can also cause problems; citrus prefers neutral soil (pH between 6 and 8). Citrus plants are also sensitive to excessive salt in the soil. Soil testing may be necessary to properly diagnose nutrient-deficiency diseases.[46]

Uses

Culinary

Many citrus fruits, such as oranges, tangerines, grapefruits, and clementines, are generally eaten fresh.[28] They are typically peeled and can be easily split into segments.[28] Grapefruit is more commonly halved and eaten out of the skin with a spoon.[47] Special spoons (grapefruit spoons) with serrated tips are designed for this purpose. Orange and grapefruit juices are also popular breakfast beverages. More acidic citrus, such as lemons and limes, are generally not eaten on their own. Meyer lemons can be eaten out of hand with the fragrant skin; they are both sweet and sour. Lemonade or limeade are popular beverages prepared by diluting the juices of these fruits and adding sugar. Lemons and limes are also used in cooked dishes, or sliced and used as garnishes. Their juice is used as an ingredient in a variety of dishes; it can commonly be found in salad dressings and squeezed over cooked fish, meat, or vegetables.

A variety of flavours can be derived from different parts and treatments of citrus fruits.[28] The rind and oil of the fruit is generally bitter, especially when cooked, so is often combined with sugar. The fruit pulp can vary from sweet to extremely sour. Marmalade, a condiment derived from cooked orange and lemon, can be especially bitter, but is usually sweetened with sugar to cut the bitterness and produce a jam-like result. Lemon or lime is commonly used as a garnish for water, soft drinks, or cocktails. Citrus juices, rinds, or slices are used in a variety of mixed drinks. The colourful outer skin of some citrus fruits, known as zest, is used as a flavouring in cooking; the white inner portion of the peel, the pith, is usually avoided due to its bitterness. The zest of a citrus fruit, typically lemon or an orange, can also be soaked in water in a coffee filter, and drunk.

Wedges of pink grapefruit, lime, and lemon, and a half orange (clockwise from top)

Calamansi, a ubiquitous part of traditional dipping sauces and condiments in Philippine cuisine

Citrus aurantifolia in Kerala

Ripe bitter oranges (Citrus × aurantium) from Asprovalta

Phytochemicals and research

Some Citrus species contain significant amounts of the phytochemical class called furanocoumarins, a diverse family of naturally occurring organic chemical compounds.[48][49] In humans, some (not all) of these chemical compounds act as strong photosensitizers when applied topically to the skin, while other furanocoumarins interact with medications when taken orally. The latter is called the "grapefruit juice effect", a common name for a related group of grapefruit-drug interactions.[48]

Due to the photosensitizing effects of certain furanocoumarins, some Citrus species are known to cause phytophotodermatitis,[50] a potentially severe skin inflammation resulting from contact with a light-sensitizing botanical agent followed by exposure to ultraviolet light. In Citrus species, the primary photosensitizing agent appears to be bergapten,[51] a linear furanocoumarin derived from psoralen. This claim has been confirmed for lime[52][53] and bergamot. In particular, bergamot essential oil has a higher concentration of bergapten (3000–3600 mg/kg) than any other Citrus-based essential oil.[54]

In general, three Citrus ancestral species (pomelos, citrons, and papedas) synthesize relatively high quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas a fourth ancestral species (mandarins) is practically devoid of these compounds.[51] Since the production of furanocoumarins in plants is believed to be heritable, the descendants of mandarins (such as sweet oranges, tangerines, and other small mandarin hybrids) are expected to have low quantities of furanocoumarins, whereas other hybrids (such as limes, grapefruit, and sour oranges) are expected to have relatively high quantities of these compounds.

In most Citrus species, the peel contains a greater diversity and a higher concentration of furanocoumarins than the pulp of the same fruit.[52][53][51] An exception is bergamottin, a furanocoumarin implicated in grapefruit-drug interactions, which is more concentrated in the pulp of certain varieties of pomelo, grapefruit, and sour orange.

One review of preliminary research on diets indicated that consuming citrus fruits was associated with a 10% reduction of risk for developing breast cancer.[55]

List of citrus fruits

Main article: List of citrus fruits

Grapefruit

Citrons (Citrus medica) for sale in Germany

Red finger Lime (Citrus australasica), a rare delicacy from Australia

The genus Citrus has been suggested to originate in the eastern Himalayan foothills. Prior to human cultivation, it consisted of just a few species, though the status of some as distinct species has yet to be confirmed:

Citrus crenatifolia – species name is unresolved, from Sri Lanka

Citrus japonica – kumquats, from East Asia ranging into Southeast Asia (sometimes separated into four-five Fortunella species)

Citrus mangshanensis – species name is unresolved, from Hunan, China

Citrus maxima – pomelo (pummelo, shaddock), from the Island Southeast Asia

Citrus medica – citron, from India

Citrus platymamma – byeonggyul, from Jeju Island, Korea

Citrus reticulata – mandarin orange, from China

Citrus trifoliata – trifoliate orange, from Korea and adjacent China (often separated as Poncirus)

Australian limes

Citrus australasica – Australian finger lime

Citrus australis – Australian round lime

Citrus glauca – Australian desert lime

Citrus garrawayi – Mount White lime

Citrus gracilis – Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime

Citrus inodora – Russel River lime and Maiden's Australian lime

Citrus warburgiana – New Guinea wild lime

Citrus wintersii – Brown River finger lime

Papedas, including

Citrus halimii – limau kadangsa, limau kedut kera, from Thailand and Malaya

Citrus hystrix – Kaffir lime, makrut, from Mainland Southeast Asia to Island Southeast Asia

Citrus cavaleriei – Ichang papeda from southern China

Citrus celebica – Celebes papeda

Citrus indica – Indian wild orange, from the Indian subcontinent[56]

Citrus latipes – Khasi papeda, from Assam, Meghalaya, Burma[56]

Citrus longispina – Megacarpa papeda, winged lime, blacktwig lime

Citrus macrophylla – Alemow

Citrus macroptera – Melanesian papeda from Indochina to Melanesia[56]

Citrus micrantha, Citrus westeri – biasong or samuyao from the southern Philippines[57]

Citrus webberi – Kalpi, Malayan lemon

Hybrids and cultivars

Sweetie or oroblanco is a pomelo-grapefruit hybrid.

The etrog, or citron, is central to the ritual of the Jewish Sukkot festival. Many varieties are used for this purpose (including the Yemenite variety pictured).

Clementines (Citrus ×clementina) have thinner skins than oranges.

Mikan (Citrus ×unshiu), also known as satsumas

Sweet oranges (Citrus ×sinensis) are used in many foods. Their ancestors were pomelos and mandarin oranges.

Cross-section of Odichukuthi lime

Odichukuthi fruit

A pompia fruit

Sorted by parentage. As each hybrid is the product of (at least) two parent species, they are listed multiple times.

Citrus maxima-based

Amanatsu, natsumikan – Citrus ×natsudaidai (C. maxima × unknown)

Cam sành – (C. reticulata × C. ×sinensis)

Dangyuja – (Citrus grandis Osbeck)

Grapefruit – Citrus ×paradisi (C. maxima × C. ×sinensis)

Haruka – Citrus tamurana x natsudaidai

Hassaku orange – (Citrus hassaku)

Ichang lemon – (Citrus wilsonii)

Imperial lemon – (C. ×limon × C. ×paradisi)

Kawachi Bankan – (Citrus kawachiensis)

Kinnow – (C. ×nobilis × C. ×deliciosa)

Kiyomi – (C. ×sinensis × C. ×unshiu)

Minneola tangelo – (C. reticulata × C. ×paradisi)

Orangelo, Chironja – (C. ×paradisi × C. ×sinensis)

Oroblanco, Sweetie – (C. maxima × C. ×paradisi)

Sweet orange – Citrus ×sinensis (probably C. maxima × C. reticulata)

Tangelo – Citrus ×tangelo (C. reticulata × C. maxima or C. ×paradisi)

Tangor – Citrus ×nobilis (C. reticulata × C. ×sinensis)

Ugli – (C. reticulata × C. maxima or C. ×paradisi)

Citrus medica-based

Alemow, Colo – Citrus ×macrophylla (C. medica × C. micrantha)

Buddha's hand – Citrus medica var. sarcodactylus, a fingered citron.

Citron varieties with sour pulp – Diamante citron, Florentine citron, Greek citron and Balady citron

Citron varieties with sweet pulp – Corsican citron and Moroccan citron.

Etrog, a group of citron cultivars that are traditionally used for a Jewish ritual. Etrog is Hebrew for citron in general.

Fernandina – Citrus ×limonimedica (probably (C. medica × C. maxima) × C. medica)

Ponderosa lemon – (probably (C. medica × C. maxima) × C. medica)

Lemon – Citrus ×limon (C. medica × C. ×aurantium)

Key lime, Mexican lime, Omani lime – Citrus ×aurantiifolia (C. medica × C. micrantha)

Persian lime, Tahiti lime – C. ×latifolia (C. ×aurantiifolia × C. ×limon)

Limetta, Sweet Lemon, Sweet Lime, mosambi – Citrus ×limetta (C. medica × C. ×aurantium)

Lumia – several distinct pear shaped lemon-like hybrids

Pompia – Citrus medica tuberosa Risso & Poiteau, 1818 (C. medica × C. ×aurantium), native to Sardinia, genetically synonymous with Rhobs el Arsa.

Rhobs el Arsa – 'bread of the garden', C. medica × C. ×aurantium, from Morocco.

Yemenite citron – a pulpless true citron.

Citrus reticulata–based

Bergamot orange – Citrus ×bergamia (C. ×limon × C. ×aurantium)

Bitter orange, Seville Orange – Citrus ×aurantium (C. maxima × C. reticulata)

Blood orange – Citrus ×sinensis cultivars

Calamansi, Calamondin – (Citrus reticulata × Citrus japonica)

Cam sành – (C. reticulata × C. ×sinensis)

Chinotto – Citrus ×aurantium var. myrtifolia or Citrus ×myrtifolia

ChungGyun – Citrus reticulata cultivar[verification needed]

Clementine – Citrus ×clementina

Cleopatra Mandarin – Citrus ×reshni

Siranui – Citrus reticulata cv. 'Dekopon' (ChungGyun × Ponkan)

Daidai – Citrus ×aurantium var. daidai or Citrus ×daidai

Encore – ((Citrus reticulata x sinensis) x C. deliciosa)

Grapefruit – Citrus ×paradisi (C. maxima × C. ×sinensis)

Hermandina – Citrus reticulata cv. 'Hermandina'

Imperial lemon – ((C. maxima × C. medica) × C. ×paradisi)

Iyokan, anadomikan – Citrus ×iyo

Jabara – (Citrus jabara)

Kanpei – (Citrus reticulata 'Kanpei')

Kinkoji unshiu – (Citrus obovoidea x unshiu)

Kinnow, Wilking – (C. ×nobilis × C. ×deliciosa)

Kishumikan – (Citrus kinokuni)

Kiyomi – (C. sinensis × C. ×unshiu)

Kobayashi mikan – (Citrus natsudaidai x unshiu)

Koji orange – (Citrus leiocarpa)

Kuchinotsu No.37 – ('Kiyomi' x 'Encore')

Laraha – ''C. ×aurantium ssp. currassuviencis

Mediterranean mandarin, Willow Leaf – Citrus ×deliciosa

Meyer lemon, Valley Lemon – Citrus ×meyeri (C. medica × C. ×sinensis)

Michal mandarin – Citrus reticulata cv. 'Michal'

Mikan, Satsuma – Citrus ×unshiu

Murcott – (C. reticulata x sinensis)

Naartjie – (C. reticulata × C. nobilis)

Nova mandarin, Clemenvilla

Orangelo, Chironja – (C. ×paradisi × C. ×sinensis)

Oroblanco, Sweetie – (C. maxima × C. ×paradisi)

Palestine sweet lime [fr] – Citrus ×limettioides Tanaka (C. medica × C. ×sinensis)

Ponkan – Citrus reticulata cv. 'Ponkan'

Rangpur, Lemanderin, Mandarin Lime – Citrus ×limonia (C. reticulata × C. medica)

Reikou – (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')

Rough lemon – Citrus ×jambhiri Lush. (C. reticulata × C. medica)

Sanbokan – Citrus sulcata

Setoka – (Kuchinotsu No.37 x 'Murcott')

Shekwasha, Hirami Lemon, Taiwan Tangerine – Citrus ×depressa

Sunki, Suenkat – Citrus sunki or C. reticulata var. sunki

Sweet orange – Citrus ×sinensis (C. maxima × C. reticulata)

Tachibana orange – Citrus tachibana (Mak.) Tanaka or C. reticulata var. tachibana

Tangelo – Citrus ×tangelo (C. reticulata × C. maxima or C. ×paradisi)

Tangerine – Citrus ×tangerina

Tangor – Citrus ×nobilis (C. reticulata × C. ×sinensis)

Ugli – (C. reticulata × C. maxima or C. ×paradisi)

Volkamer lemon – Citrus ×volkameriana (C. reticulata × C. medica)

Yukou – (Citrus yuko)

Yuzu – Citrus ×junos (C. reticulata × C. ×cavaleriei)

Other/Unresolved

Djeruk limau – Citrus ×amblycarpa

Gajanimma, Carabao Lime – Citrus ×pennivesiculata

Hyuganatsu, Hyuganatsu pumelo – Citrus tamurana

Ichang lemon – (C. cavaleriei × C. maxima)

Kabosu – Citrus ×sphaerocarpa

Odichukuthi – Citrus Odichukuthi from Malayalam

Ougonkan – Citrus flaviculpus hort ex. Tanaka

Sakurajima komikan orange

Shonan gold – (Ougonkan) Citrus flaviculpus hort ex. Tanaka × (Imamura unshiu), Citrus unshiu Marc

Sudachi – Citrus ×sudachi

For hybrids with kumquats, see citrofortunella. For hybrids with the trifoliate orange, see citrange.

See also

icon Food portal

Citrus taxonomy

Japanese citrus

List of lemon dishes and beverages

References

Wu, Guohong Albert (7 February 2017). "Genomics of the origin and evolution of Citrus". Nature. 554 (7692): 311–316. doi:10.1038/nature25447. PMID 29414943. S2CID 205263645.

"Citrus L.". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 10 September 2021.

Wu GA, Terol J, Ibanez V, López-García A, Pérez-Román E, Borredá C, Domingo C, Tadeo FR, Carbonell-Caballero J, Alonso R, Curk F, Du D, Ollitrault P, Roose ML, Dopazo J, Gmitter FG, Rokhsar DS, Talon M (February 2018). "Genomics of the origin and evolution of Citrus". Nature. 554 (7692): 311–316. Bibcode:2018Natur.554..311W. doi:10.1038/nature25447. PMID 29414943.

Fuller, Dorian Q.; Castillo, Cristina; Kingwell-Banham, Eleanor; Qin, Ling; Weisskopf, Alison (2017). "Charred pomelo peel, historical linguistics and other tree crops: approaches to framing the historical context of early Citrus cultivation in East, South and Southeast Asia". In Zech-Matterne, Véronique; Fiorentino, Girolamo (eds.). AGRUMED: Archaeology and history of citrus fruit in the Mediterranean. Publications du Centre Jean Bérard. pp. 29–48. doi:10.4000/books.pcjb.2107. ISBN 9782918887775.

Zech-Matterne, Véronique; Fiorentino, Girolamo; Coubray, Sylvie; Luro, François (2017). "Introduction". In Zech-Matterne, Véronique; Fiorentino, Girolamo (eds.). AGRUMED: Archaeology and history of citrus fruit in the Mediterranean: Acclimatization, diversification, uses. Publications du Centre Jean Bérard. ISBN 9782918887775.

Langgut, Dafna (June 2017). "The Citrus Route Revealed: From Southeast Asia into the Mediterranean". HortScience. 52 (6): 814–822. doi:10.21273/HORTSCI11023-16.

Blench, R.M. (2005). "Fruits and arboriculture in the Indo Pacific region". Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 24: 31–50.

Langgut, Dafna (2017). "The history of Citrus medica (citron) in the Near East: Botanical remains and ancient art and texts". In Zech-Matterne, Véronique; Fiorentino, Girolamo (eds.). AGRUMED: Archaeology and history of citrus fruit in the Mediterranean. Publications du Centre Jean Bérard. ISBN 9782918887775.

Duarte, A.; Fernandes, J.; Bernardes, J.; Miguel, G. (2016). "Citrus as a Component of the Mediterranean Diet". Journal of Spatial and Organizational Dynamics. 4: 289–304.

University of South Florida: Fruit

History of the Citrus and Citrus Tree Growing in America

Billie S. Britz, "Environmental Provisions for Plants in Seventeenth-Century Northern Europe" The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 33.2 (May 1974:133–144) p 133.

Spiegel-Roy, Pinchas; Eliezer E. Goldschmidt (1996). Biology of Citrus. Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-521-33321-4.

A phylogenetic analysis of 34 chloroplast genomes elucidates the relationships between wild and domestic species within the genus Citrus

Briggs, Helen (8 Feb 2018), "DNA Story of when life first gave us lemons," BBC, https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-42960445, accessed 12 February 2018

Velasco, Riccardo; Licciardello, Concetta (2014). "A genealogy of the citrus family". Nature Biotechnology. 32 (7): 640–642. doi:10.1038/nbt.2954. PMID 25004231. S2CID 9357494.

Inglese, Paolo; Sortino, Giuseppe (2019). "Citrus History, Taxonomy, Breeding, and Fruit Quality". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.013.221. ISBN 9780199389414.

Citrus meletensis (Rutaceae), a new species from the Pliocene of Valdarno (Italy). Fischer, T.C. & Butzmann, Plant Systematics and Evolution – March 1998, Volume 210, Issue 1, pp 51–55. doi:10.1007/BF00984727

Citrus linczangensis sp. n., a Leaf Fossil of Rutaceae from the Late Miocene of Yunnan, China by Sanping Xie, Steven R Manchester, Kenan Liu and Bainian Sun – International Journal of Plant Sciences 174(8):1201–1207 October 2013.

Curk, Franck; Ollitrault, Frédérique; Garcia-Lor, Andres; Luro, François; Navarro, Luis; Ollitrault, Patrick (2016). "Phylogenetic origin of limes and lemons revealed by cytoplasmic and nuclear markers". Annals of Botany. 11 (4): 565–583. doi:10.1093/aob/mcw005. PMC 4817432. PMID 26944784.

Curk, Franck; Ancillo, Gema; Garcia-Lor, Andres; Luro, François; Perrier, Xavier; Jacquemoud-Collet, Jean-Pierre; Navarro, Luis; Ollitrault, Patrick (December 2014). "Next generation haplotyping to decipher nuclear genomic interspecific admixture in Citrusspecies: analysis of chromosome 2". BMC Genetics. 15 (1): 152. doi:10.1186/s12863-014-0152-1. ISSN 1471-2156. PMC 4302129. PMID 25544367.

Klein, Joshua D. (2014). "Citron Cultivation, Production and Uses in the Mediterranean Region". Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the Middle-East. Medicinal and Aromatic Plants of the World. 2. pp. 199–214. doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9276-9_10. ISBN 978-94-017-9275-2.

Andrés García Lor (2013). Organización de la diversidad genética de los cítricos (PDF) (Thesis). p. 79.

Bayer, R. J., et al. (2009). A molecular phylogeny of the orange subfamily (Rutaceae: Aurantioideae) using nine cpDNA sequences. American Journal of Botany 96(3), 668–85.

"Oxanthera Montrouz.". Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 10 September 2021.

Del Hotal, Tom. "CITRUS PRUNING" (PDF). California Rare Fruit Growers.

Miguel, M.G.; Dandlen, S.; Figueiredo, A.C.; Barroso, J.G.; Pedro, L.G.; Duarte, A.; Faísca, J. (2008). "Essential oils of flowers of Citrus sinensis and Citrus clementina cultivated in Algarve, Portugal". Acta Horticulturae. 773 (773): 89–94. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2008.773.12. hdl:10400.1/2788.

Janick, Jules (2005). "Citrus". Purdue University Tropical Horticulture Lecture 32. Archived from the original on 24 June 2005. Retrieved 28 February 2020.

"Citrus fruit diagram". ucla.edu. Archived from the original on 3 October 2012.

"Lith". TheFreeDictionary.com.

Duarte, A.; Caixeirinho, D.; Miguel, M.; Sustelo, V.; Nunes, C.; Fernandes, M.; Marreiros, A. (2012). "Organic Acids Concentration in Citrus Juice from Conventional versus Organic Farming". Acta Horticulturae. 933 (933): 601–606. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.933.78. hdl:10400.1/2790.

Duarte, A; Caixeirinho, D; Miguel, G; Nunes, C; Mendes, M; Marreiros, A (2010). "Vitamin C Content of Citrus from Conventional versus Organic Farming Systems". Acta Horticulturae. 868 (868): 389–394. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2010.868.52. hdl:10400.1/1158.

"Flavonoid Composition of Fruit Tissues of Citrus Species". Archived from the original on 28 May 2007. Retrieved 5 July 2011.

"The relation of climate conditions to color development in citrus fruit" (PDF). Retrieved 3 July 2019.[permanent dead link]

Shailes, Sarah (4 December 2014). "Why is my orange green?". Plant Scientist.

Helgi Öpik; Stephen A. Rolfe; Arthur John Willis; Herbert Edward Street (2005). The physiology of flowering plants. Cambridge University Press. pp. 309–. ISBN 978-0-521-66251-2. Retrieved 31 July 2010.

Pinchas Spiegel-Roy; Eliezer E. Goldschmidt (1996). Biology of citrus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 101–. ISBN 978-0-521-33321-4. Retrieved 31 July 2010.

"Citrus fruit, fresh and processed: Statistical Bulletin" (PDF). UN Food and Agriculture Organization. 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2020.

"Citrus: World Markets and Trade" (PDF). US Department of Agriculture. 1 January 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2020.

Lance., Walheim (1996). Citrus : complete guide to selecting & growing more than 100 varieties for California, Arizona, Texas, the Gulf Coast and Florida. Tucson, Ariz.: Ironwood Press. ISBN 978-0-9628236-4-0. OCLC 34116821.

"About the Asian Citrus Psyllid and Huanglongbing". californiacitrusthreat.org.

"Florida Citrus Statistics 2015–2016" (PDF). United States Department of Agriculture – National Agricultural Statistics Service. 3 October 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2017.

"Farmers, researchers try to hold off deadly citrus greening long enough to find cure". Retrieved 20 September 2019.

"Citrus Leafminer – UC Pest Management". University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources. January 2019.

Online at SumoGardener "How to Avoid Yellow Leaves on Citrus Trees". 9 July 2016.

Mauk, Peggy A.; Tom Shea. "Questions and Answers to Citrus Management (3rd ed.)" (PDF). University of California Cooperative Extension. Retrieved 24 May 2014.

Sheu, Scott. "Foods Indigenous to the Western Hemisphere: Grapefruit". American Indian Health and Diet Project. Aihd.ku.edu. Archived from the original on 18 August 2010.

Chen, Meng; Zhou, Shu-yi; Fabriaga, Erlinda; Zhang, Pian-hong; Zhou, Quan (2018). "Food-drug interactions precipitated by fruit juices other than grapefruit juice: An update review". Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 26 (2): S61–S71. doi:10.1016/j.jfda.2018.01.009. ISSN 1021-9498. PMID 29703387.

Hung, Wei-Lun; Suh, Joon Hyuk; Wang, Yu (2017). "Chemistry and health effects of furanocoumarins in grapefruit". Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 25 (1): 71–83. doi:10.1016/j.jfda.2016.11.008. ISSN 1021-9498. PMID 28911545.

McGovern, Thomas W.; Barkley, Theodore M. (2000). "Botanical Dermatology". The Electronic Textbook of Dermatology. Internet Dermatology Society. 37 (5). Section Phytophotodermatitis. doi:10.1046/j.1365-4362.1998.00385.x. PMID 9620476. S2CID 221810453. Retrieved 29 November 2018.

Dugrand-Judek, Audray; Olry, Alexandre; Hehn, Alain; Costantino, Gilles; Ollitrault, Patrick; Froelicher, Yann; Bourgaud, Frédéric (November 2015). "The Distribution of Coumarins and Furanocoumarins in Citrus Species Closely Matches Citrus Phylogeny and Reflects the Organization of Biosynthetic Pathways". PLOS ONE. 10 (11): e0142757. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1042757D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142757. PMC 4641707. PMID 26558757.

Nigg, H. N.; Nordby, H. E.; Beier, R. C.; Dillman, A.; Macias, C.; Hansen, R. C. (1993). "Phototoxic coumarins in limes" (PDF). Food Chem Toxicol. 31 (5): 331–35. doi:10.1016/0278-6915(93)90187-4. PMID 8505017.

Wagner, A. M.; Wu, J. J.; Hansen, R. C.; Nigg, H. N.; Beiere, R. C. (2002). "Bullous phytophotodermatitis associated with high natural concentrations of furanocoumarins in limes". Am J Contact Dermat. 13 (1): 10–14. doi:10.1053/ajcd.2002.29948. ISSN 0891-5849. PMID 11887098.

"Toxicological Assessment of Furocoumarins in Foodstuffs" (PDF). The German Research Foundation (DFG). DFG Senate Commission on Food Safety (SKLM). 2004. Retrieved 1 November 2018.

Song, Jung-Kook; Bae, Jong-Myon (1 March 2013). "Citrus fruit intake and breast cancer risk: a quantitative systematic review". Journal of Breast Cancer. 16 (1): 72–76. doi:10.4048/jbc.2013.16.1.72. ISSN 1738-6756. PMC 3625773. PMID 23593085.

GRIN. "Species list in GRIN for genus Citrus". Taxonomy for Plants. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland: USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Archived from the original on 20 January 2009. Retrieved 6 January 2011.

P. J. Wester (1915), "Citrus Fruits In The Philippines", Philippine Agricultural Review, 8

External links

Effects of pollination on Citrus plants Pollination of Citrus by Honey Bees

Citrus Research and Education Center of IFAS (largest citrus research center in world)

Citrus Variety Collection by the University of California

Citrus (Mark Rieger, Professor of Horticulture, University of Georgia)

Fundecitrus – Fund for Citrus Plant Protection is an organization of citrus Brazilian producers and processors.

Citrus – taxonomy fruit anatomy at GeoChemBio

Porcher Michel H.; et al. (1995). "Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database (M.M.P.N.D) – A Work in Progress". School of Agriculture and Food Systems, Faculty of Land & Food Resources, The University of Melbourne. Australia.

vte

Citrus

Taxon identifiers

Wikidata: Q81513Wikispecies: CitrusAPDB: 189500APNI: 69970BioLib: 62166EoL: 61101EPPO: 1CIDGFoAO2: CitrusFoC: 107164GBIF: 3190155GRIN: 2640iNaturalist: 54297IPNI: 35646-1IRMNG: 1322637ITIS: 28882NBN: NHMSYS0000457359NCBI: 2706NZOR: 0b7ae159-a1ec-4660-9315-b5a2de34ee6bPLANTS: CITRU2POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30022289-2Tropicos: 40009461uBio: 5868842WFO: wfo-4000008411

Authority control Edit this at Wikidata

Categories: CitrusCocktail garnishesGarden plantsLists of foodsLists of plantsOrnamental treesPlants used in bonsaiAurantioideae genera

Center for Open Science

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Center for Open Science

Center for Open Science.png

URL cos.io, osf.io

Commercial No

Launched 2013; 9 years ago

Current status Active

The Center for Open Science is a non-profit technology organization based in Charlottesville, Virginia with a mission to "increase the openness, integrity, and reproducibility of scientific research."[1] Brian Nosek and Jeffrey Spies founded the organization in January 2013, funded mainly by the Laura and John Arnold Foundation and others.[2]

The organization began with work in reproducibility of psychology research, with the large-scale initiative Reproducibility Project: Psychology.[3][4][5] A second reproducibility project for cancer biology research has also been started through a partnership with Science Exchange.[6] In March 2017, the Center published a detailed strategic plan.[7] Brian Nosek posted a letter outlining the history of the Center and future directions.[8]

Contents

1 Open Science Framework

1.1 Reproducibility project

1.2 Preprints

2 See also

3 References

4 External links

Open Science Framework

Reproducibility project

The Open Science Framework (OSF) is an open source software project that facilitates open collaboration in science research. The framework was initially used to work on a project in the reproducibility of psychology research,[9][10] but has subsequently become multidisciplinary.[11] The current reproducibility aspect of the project is a crowdsourced empirical investigation of the reproducibility of a variety of studies from psychological literature, sampling from three major journals: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Psychological Science, and Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition.[12] Scientists from all over the world volunteer to replicate a study of their choosing from these journals, and follow a structured protocol for designing and conducting a high-powered replication of the key effect. The results were published in 2015.[13]

Preprints

In 2016, OSF started three new preprint services: engrXiv, SocArXiv, and PsyArXiv.[14] It subsequently opened its own preprint server in 2017, OSF Preprints.[15] Its unified search function includes preprints from OSF Preprints, alongside those from other servers such as Preprints.org, Thesis Commons, PeerJ, and multiple ArXiv repositories.[16]

See also

Open science

Replication crisis

Metascience

List of academic preprint servers

References

"Center for Open Science". Business Plan. January 2013. Retrieved 11 July 2013.

"Our Sponsors". cos.io. Retrieved 2017-03-16.

"Center for Open Science". Retrieved 11 July 2013.

University of Virginia (4 March 2013). "New Center for Open Science Designed to Increase Research Transparency, Provide Free Technologies for Scientists". UVA Today. Retrieved 11 July 2013.

Bohannon, John (5 March 2013). "Psychologists Launch a Bare-All Research Initiative". Science Magazine. Archived from the original on 2013-05-11. Retrieved 11 July 2013.

"Reproducibility Initiative Receives $1.3M Grant to Validate 50 Landmark Cancer Studies". Archived from the original on 2015-01-29. Retrieved 29 January 2015.

"COS: Strategic Plan, v2.0". Google Docs. Retrieved 2017-03-16.

"A Brief History of COS 2013-2017". cos.io. Retrieved 2017-03-16.

Estes, Sarah (20 Dec 2012). "The Myth of Self-Correcting Science". The Atlantic. Retrieved 11 July 2013.

Yong, Ed (16 May 2012). "Replication studies: Bad copy". Nature News. Retrieved 11 July 2013.

"OSF | Home". osf.io. Retrieved 2017-04-01.

"Do normative scientific practices and incentive structures produce a biased body of research evidence?".

Open Science Collaboration (2015). "Estimating the reproducibility of Psychological Science" (PDF). Science. 349 (6251): aac4716. doi:10.1126/science.aac4716. hdl:10722/230596. PMID 26315443.

Kelly, Jane (8 December 2016). "Psychology Professor Releases Free, Open-Source, Preprint Software". UVA Today. Retrieved 16 July 2018.

"OSF Preprints". cos.io. Retrieved 2018-03-27.

"Search preprints". osf.io. Retrieved 2021-02-26.

External links

Center for Open Science (official site)

Open Science Framework (official site)

Authority control Edit this at Wikidata

General

VIAF 1WorldCat

Campanula carpatica

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Campanula carpatica

Campanula carpatica a2.jpg

Scientific classificationedit

Kingdom: Plantae

Clade: Tracheophytes

Clade: Angiosperms

Clade: Eudicots

Clade: Asterids

Order: Asterales

Family: Campanulaceae

Genus: Campanula

Species: C. carpatica

Binomial name

Campanula carpatica

Jacq.

Campanula carpatica, the tussock bellflower[1][2] or Carpathian harebell, is a species of flowering plant in the family Campanulaceae, native to the Carpathian Mountains of Central Europe. It is a low-growing herbaceous perennial, with long stems bearing solitary blue bell-shaped flowers. It was introduced to the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew in 1774 by Nikolaus Joseph von Jacquin.[3] Several cultivars in shades of white, blue, pink and purple, have been developed for garden use.[4]

This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[5]

References

BSBI List 2007 (xls). Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland. Archived from the original (xls) on 2015-06-26. Retrieved 2014-10-17.

"Campanula carpatica". Natural Resources Conservation Service PLANTS Database. USDA. Retrieved 10 January 2016.

William Curtis (1790). "The Botanical Magazine": 117.

RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1405332965.

"RHS Plant Selector - Campanula carpatica". Retrieved 15 April 2020.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carpathian harebell (Campanula carpatica).

Taxon identifiers

Wikidata: Q159198Wikispecies: Campanula carpaticaBioLib: 96471EoL: 577817EPPO: CMPCAEUNIS: 165259GBIF: 5410826GRIN: 8749iNaturalist: 159757IPNI: 140068-1IRMNG: 11337195ITIS: 34480MichiganFlora: 694NBN: NBNSYS0000033455NCBI: 171910Plant List: kew-364195PLANTS: CACA37POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:140068-1Tropicos: 5500204WCSP: 364195WFO: wfo-0000826758

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This Asterales article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

Categories: CampanulaFlora of Eastern EuropeGarden plants of EuropeGroundcoversPlants described in 1770Taxa named by Nikolaus Joseph von JacquinAsterales stubs

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See also: Ber (disambiguation)

Contents

1 Biology and Medicine

2 Computing

3 Places

4 Transport

5 Other

BER may refer to:

Biology and Medicine

Basal electrical rhythm, spontaneous rhythmic slow action potentials that some smooth muscles of the GI tract display

Base excision repair, DNA repair pathway

Benign early repolarization

Blossom end rot, plant disorder

Computing

Basic Encoding Rules, a set of rules for encoding data that is described using the ASN.1 standard, for the purpose of transmission to a different computer system

Bit error rate, the ratio between the number of incorrect bits transmitted to the total number of bits (E.800)

Bleeding edge software release, an incremental, often daily distribution of the next version of a software package which has not yet been declared "stable"

Places

Bermuda, British overseas territory

Bohai Economic Rim, China

Transport

Air Berlin, German airline with ICAO code BER

BER is the IATA code for Berlin Brandenburg Airport, opened in October 2020. It was formerly a metro area code encompassing the following airports in the Berlin region, Germany:

Berlin-Tegel Airport (TXL), closed in November 2020, after the opening of BER

Berlin-Tempelhof Airport (THF), closed in 2008

Berlin-Schönefeld Airport (SXF), closed in October 2020, but became part of Berlin Brandenburg Airport

Other

Berber language (ISO 639 alpha-3, ber)

Beyond economic repair, see also spare part

Block Exemption Regulation (EU), Regulation published by the European Commission regarding European Union competition law

Building the Education Revolution, a 2010 Australian government economic stimulus programme

Building energy rating

Chemische Berichte, chemistry journal

B.E.R., band best known for their single The Night Begins to Shine

Disambiguation icon

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title BER.

If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Categories: Disambiguation pages

CAS may refer to:

Contents

1 Organisations

2 Computing

3 Science and medicine

4 Entertainment and sports

5 Military

6 Aerospace

7 Transport

8 Other uses

9 See also

Organisations

California Academy of Sciences, a major natural history museum and center for scientific research

Career Academies of Seminole, a program run by Pinellas County Schools in Florida

Casualty Actuarial Society, a professional society of actuaries in the United States

Centre for Astrophysics and Supercomputing, a research center at Swinburne University in Australia

Chinese Academy of Sciences, the national academy for the natural sciences of China

Combined Associated Schools, an association of private schools in Sydney, Australia

Contemporary Art Society, UK

Contemporary Art Society (Australia)

Contemporary Art Society, Adelaide, later the Contemporary Art Centre of South Australia

Contemporary Arts Society, Canada

Court of Arbitration for Sport, an international arbitration body set up to settle disputes related to sports

Children's Aid Society, a private charity in New York City

Children's Aid Society (Ontario), a Canadian government organization

Christchurch Adventist School, a Seventh-day Adventist school in New Zealand

Civil Aid Service, a Hong Kong Civil Aid agency

Cinema Audio Society, an association of sound professionals in the motion picture and television industry

Council for the Advancement of Standards in Higher Education, a consortium of professional student development organizations in higher education

Connecticut Association of Schools, the governing body for secondary school athletics and other competitions in Connecticut, US

Czech Academy of Sciences, formerly Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic

Computing

CAS latency (column address strobe or column address select), a latency in reading computer memory

Central Authentication Service, a single sign-on protocol

Cloud Analytic Services, a server that provides the cloud-based, run-time environment for data management and analytics with SAS (software)

Code Access Security in the Microsoft .NET framework

Compare-and-swap, a special CPU instruction, an atomic instruction used in multithreading to achieve synchronization

Computer algebra system, a software program that facilitates symbolic mathematics

Conditional access system, a technology used in set-top boxes to allow conditional viewing of TV channels

Content-addressable storage, a data storage mechanism

Copyright Alert System, also known as the 'six strikes' program

Cycle-accurate simulator, a computer program that simulates a microarchitecture in a cycle-accurate manner

Science and medicine

Calcium sulfide (CaS), a chemical compound

Coronary artery spasm (CAS)

Carotid artery stenting, endovascular surgery of the carotid artery

Cassiopeia (constellation) (Cas), standard astronomical abbreviation

Cells Alive System

Chemical Abstracts Service, a division of the American Chemical Society which produces bibliographic and chemistry databases

CAS Registry Number, unique numerical identifiers for chemical substances

Cognitive Assessment System, an academic assessment test given to children

Complex adaptive system, special cases of complex systems

Computer Aided Surgery (journal)

Computer-assisted surgery, use computer technology in surgery

Critical animal studies, an interdisciplinary field in the humanities and social sciences

Hartley kernel, which also is known as the cosine and sine function

Cis-abienol synthase, an enzyme

CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins, involved in the prokaryotic immune system and genome editing

CAS parameters, an image analysis method typically used in astronomy

Czech Academy of Sciences

Entertainment and sports

Cigarettes After Sex, an American ambient pop band

Český atletický svaz, Czech Athletics Federation

Classic Arts Showcase, an American television channel promoting the fine arts

Cowboy action shooting, a competitive shooting sport

Military

Chief of the Air Staff, the professional head of the air force in some Commonwealth nations

Close air support, a military tactic whereby aircraft are utilized to support friendly forces

Combat armor suit, a specialized suit that provides powered armor

Cost Accounting Standards, accounting requirements for larger defense and government contractors (United States)

Aerospace

Calibrated airspeed, the airspeed shown by an airspeed indicator

Covenant Aviation Security, LLC, a company that provides security services to the aviation industry

Crew-alerting system, the cockpit computer that issues system warnings to pilots

Casablanca–Anfa Airport (IATA code)

Transport

Castleton railway station, Manchester, England (National Rail station code)

Chicago, Attica and Southern Railroad, a former line in the American states of Indiana and Illinois

Other uses

Certificate of Advanced Study, a postgraduate certificate

Channel-associated signaling, in telecommunications

Citizens Advice Scotland, the umbrella organisation for Citizens Advice Bureaux in Scotland

Clark Ashton Smith (1893–1961), American author and artist

Collision avoidance system, an automobile safety system

Controlled American source, a placeholder term used by the Central Intelligence Agency in classified documents to avoid disclosure of specific locations, operations, activities, or individuals

Controlled atmosphere stunning, a method for slaughtering animals

Creativity, activity, service, the community service aspect of the International Baccalaureate Diploma Programme

See also

All pages with titles beginning with CAS

All pages with titles containing CAS

Cas (disambiguation)

CASE (disambiguation)

Disambiguation icon

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the title CAS.

If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Carpathite

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Carpathite

Carpathite-258272.jpg

Carpathite from New Idria District, California USA

General

Category Organic mineral

Formula

(repeating unit) C24H12

Strunz classification 10.BA.30

Crystal system Monoclinic

Crystal class Prismatic (2/m)

(same H-M symbol)

Space group P21/c, P21/n[1]

Unit cell a = 1625 pm, b = 463.8 pm, c = 1042 pm; β = 111°10';[1] Z = 2

Identification

Color Yellow, yellowish brown on exposure

Crystal habit Acicular to thin tabular in bladed groups and fibrous radiating aggregates

Cleavage Perfect on [001], [100] and [201]

Fracture Splintery

Tenacity Flexible, nearly plastic

Mohs scale hardness 1.5

Luster Vitreous - adamantine

Streak Yellow white

Diaphaneity Transparent

Specific gravity 1.35

Optical properties Biaxial (+/-)

Refractive index nα = 1.760 - 1.780 nβ = 1.977 - 1.982 nγ = 2.050 - 2.150

Birefringence δ = 0.290 - 0.370

Melting point 432.8 °C [2]

Other characteristics Fluorescent - electric blue to blue-green

References [3][4][5][6]

Carpathite is a very rare hydrocarbon mineral, consisting of exceptionally pure coronene (C24H12), a polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon.[7][8] The name has been spelled karpatite[2] and the mineral was improperly renamed pendletonite.[1]

Contents

1 Discovery

2 Structure

3 Occurrence

4 References

Discovery

The mineral was first described in 1955 for an occurrence in Transcarpathian Oblast, Ukraine. It was named for the Carpathian Mountains.[4]

In 1967, unaware of the earlier description, Joseph Murdoch analyzed and described a specimen from the Picacho Peak area of San Benito County, California and named it "pendletonite".[1]

Structure

Carpathite has the same crystal structure of pure coronene. The molecules are planar and lie in two sets with roughly perpendicular orientations. Molecules in the same set are parallel and partially offset, with planes 0.3463 nm apart. That is slightly larger than the inter-layer distance of graphite layers (0.335 nm), and much larger than the C-C bond lengths within the molecule (about 0.14 nm). This "corrugated layer" structure is highly resistant to intercalation, which apparently explains the purity of the mineral.[2]

Occurrence

In the Ukraine discovery location, it occurs at the contact zone of a diorite intrusive into argillite within cavities, and is associated with idrialite, amorphous organic material, calcite, barite, quartz, cinnabar, and metacinnabar.[6] It has also been reported in the Presov Region of the Slovak Republic[4] and in the Kamchatka Oblast in Russia.[4]

In the California location, it occurs in centimeter-size veins, associated (and somewhat contemporaneous) with quartz and cinnabar, in a silicified matrix. Crystals are up to 10 × 1 × 1 mm.[1] Carbon isotope ratios and the morphology of the deposit indicate that the coronene was produced from organic matter in oceanic sediment, thermally decomposed, purified through hydrothermal transportation and chemical reactions, and deposition below 250 °C, after the other minerals in the intrusion.[2]

References

Joseph Murdoch and Theodore A. Geissman (1967): "Pendletonite, a new hydrocarbon mineral from California". American Mineralogist, volume 52, issues 5-6, pages 611–616. Quote: "Mr. Forrest Cureton, who sent in the specimens, has asked that the mineral, if it turned out to be new, be named after Mr. Norman H. Pendleton, of Santa Cruz, California, who was apparently the first to suspect that the crystals were not valentinite"

Takuya Echigo, Mitsuyoshi Kimata, and Teruyuki Maruoka (2007): "Crystal-chemical and carbon-isotopic characteristics of karpatite (C24H12) from the Picacho Peak Area, San Benito County, California: Evidences for the hydrothermal formation". American Mineralogist, volume 92, issues 8-9, pages 1262–1269. doi:10.2138/am.2007.2509

Mineralienatlas

Mindat with location data

Webmineral data

Handbook of Mineralogy

Max Blumer (1975): "Curtisite, idrialite and pendletonite, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon minerals: Their composition and origin" Chemical Geology, volume 16, issue 4, pages 245-256. doi:10.1016/0009-2541(75)90064-9

Stephen A. Wise, Robert M. Campbell, W. Raymond West, Milton L. Lee, Keith D. Bartle (1986): "Characterization of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon minerals curtisite, idrialite and pendletonite using high-performance liquid chromatography, gas chromatography, mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy". Chemical Geology, volume 54, issues 3–4, pages 339-357. doi:10.1016/0009-2541(86)90148-8

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This page was last edited on 30 December 2020, at 19:00 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Covering 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area. It"s southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world's longest bi-national land border. Canada's capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister—who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons—and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch, who serves as head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual at the federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture.

A highly developed country, Canada has the 24th highest nominal per-capita income globally and the sixteenth-highest ranking in the Human Development Index. Its advanced economy is the ninth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, NATO, the G7, the Group of Ten, the G20, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Commonwealth of Nations, the Arctic Council, the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and the Organization of American States.

Contents:

1 Etymology

2 History

2.1 Indigenous peoples

2.2 European colonization

2.3 British North America

2.4 Confederation and expansion

2.5 Early 20th century

2.6 Contemporary era

3 Geography

3.1 Biodiversity

3.2 Climate

4 Government and politics

4.1 Law

4.2 Foreign relations and military

4.3 Provinces and territories

5 Economy

5.1 Science and technology

6 Demographics

6.1 Health

6.2 Education

6.3 Ethnicity

6.4 Languages

6.5 Religion

7 Culture

7.1 Symbols

7.2 Literature

7.3 Visual arts

7.4 Music

7.5 Sports

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References

11 Further reading

12 External links

Etymology

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[12] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[13] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[13] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[13]

From the 16th to the early 18th century, "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[14] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[15]

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title.[16] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a "Realm of the Commonwealth".[17] The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.[18][19][20]

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[21] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[22]

Main article: History of Canada

See also: Timeline of Canadian history and List of years in Canada

Further information: Historiography of Canada

Indigenous peoples

Colour-coded map of North America showing the distribution of North American language families north of Mexico

Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples at the time of European contact

Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,[23] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.[23]

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[24][25] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[26] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[27][28] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[29]

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[30] and two million,[31] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[32] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.[33] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,[30][34] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[35][36]

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[37] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[38] The Crown and Indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.[39] However, from the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged Indigenous peoples to assimilate into their own culture.[40] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.[41] A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[42]

European colonization.

Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War, which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), New France (blue), and Spain (orange, California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated)

It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[43][44] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small encampment that only lasted a few years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[45] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[46] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[47] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[48] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[49][50]

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.[51] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.[45] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).[52] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.[53] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[54]

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland, beginning in 1610 and the Thirteen Colonies to the south were founded soon after.[55][56] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[57] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[58]

British North America.

Painting of General Wolfe dying in front of the British flag while attended by officers and native allies

Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes James Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[21] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[59] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[60] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[61] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[62] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[21]

After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[63] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city.[64] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[65]

Painting of Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams

War of 1812 heroine Laura Secord warning British commander James FitzGibbon of an impending American attack at Beaver Dams.

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[66] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[67] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[68] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[30]

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.[69] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[21] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.[70] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[71] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.[72]

Confederation and expansion.Refer to caption.

Animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation in 1867

Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[73][74] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[75] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[76] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[77] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[77] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated southwards, to the U.S.[78]

To open the West and encourage European immigration, Parliament approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[79][80] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves",[81] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.[82] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.[83] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.[84] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.[85] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.[86]

Early 20th century.

1918 Canadian War bond posters depicting three French women pulling a plow that had been constructed for horses.

French version of the poster roughly translates as "They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds".

The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. "They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds".

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[87] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[88] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[89] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[90] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[90] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[88] and the Statute of Westminster 1931 affirmed Canada's independence.[91]

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[92] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[93] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.[88]

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.[94] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[88] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[95]

The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[88] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[96]

Contemporary era.

The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[97] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[98]

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[99] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[100] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[101] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[102]

A copy of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the UK's Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[103][104][105] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, although the monarch is retained as sovereign.[106][107] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[108]

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[109] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970[110] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[111] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[112][113] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[114] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[111]

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[115] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[116] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[117] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups.[118] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[119] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[120]

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War,[121] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[122] The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, with wide social and economic disruption.[123] In 2021, the remains of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.[124] Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.[125]

Geography.

Main article: Geography of Canada

A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia.[126] By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.[127] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory.[128] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).[129][130] In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a maritime boundary with Greenland to the northeast and with the France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.[131] Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[132]

The physical geography of Canada is widely varied. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.[128] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output.[128] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are greater than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water.[133][134] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera.[135] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley massif, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[136]

Biodiversity.

Main article: Wildlife of Canada

Map showing Canada divided into different ecozones

Terrestrial ecozones and ecoprovinces of Canada. Ecozone are identified with a unique colour. Ecoprovinces are subdivisions of ecozones and are identified with a unique numeric code

Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones.[137] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.[138] Due to human activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.[139] Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.[140] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.[141] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,[142] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world's forested land).[143]

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[144] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[144] Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi)[145] of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes.[146] Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers.[147] Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of islands and mainland.[148] Canada's largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi)[149] and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia's seabirds.[150] Canada's 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).[151]

Climate.

Main article: Temperature in Canada

Köppen climate classification types of Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[152] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[153]

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost; however, the future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[154] Canada's annual average temperature over land has warmed by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[155] The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[155] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.[156]

Government and politics.

Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada

Canada is described as a "full democracy",[157] with a tradition of liberalism,[158] and an egalitarian,[159] moderate political ideology.[160] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.[161][162] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.[163][164]

A building with a central clock tower rising from a block

Parliament Hill, home of the federal government in Canada's capital city, Ottawa

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics",[a] the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).[171] The historically predominant Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum,[172] with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left.[173][174] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.[175][176] Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberal Party, who currently form a minority government; the Conservative Party, who are the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party of Canada.[177]

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[178][179][180] The reigning monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who is also monarch of 14 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's 10 provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the British monarch, although the two institutions are separate.[181] The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, with the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of her federal royal duties in Canada.[182][183]

While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada, in practice its position is mainly symbolic.[180][184][185] The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),[186] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[184] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[187] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[184] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[188]

Canadian Senate chamber long hall with two opposing banks of seats with historical paintings

The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament Hill

Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime minister or if the government loses a confidence vote in the House.[189][190] The Constitution Act, 1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[191]

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[185] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[192] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[193]

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. In addition, the minister of finance and minister of innovation, science and industry utilize the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.[194] The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.[195] The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.[196]

Law.

Main article: Law of Canada

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[197] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[198] The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982 ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[199] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[200]

Supreme Court of Canada building

The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill

Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada.[201] Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[202]

Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.[203] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[204] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[205] However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[206]

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.[207] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.[208] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.[209] These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and accommodate.[210] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.[208] These rights may include provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.[211]

Foreign relations and military

Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada, Canadian Armed Forces, and Military history of Canada

Canadian Delegation to the United Nations seated around conference table

The Canadian delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, May 1945

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[212] Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions.[213][214] Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.[215][216] The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.[217]

Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization, the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[212] Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.[218] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.[219] Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.[220] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[221]

Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.[222][223] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy.[224] For example, it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[225]

Canada maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.[226] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.[95]

Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945).[227] Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[228][229] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[230]

A fighter jet taking off from a runway

A Canadian McDonnell Douglas CF-18 Hornet in Cold Lake, Alberta. CF-18s have supported NORAD air sovereignty patrols and participated in combat during the Gulf War and the Kosovo and Bosnia crisis.

During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[231] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[232] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[88] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.[233]

In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.[234] In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion project to help develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on other countries to join them.[235] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[236] In September 2020, Canada joined the COVID-19 Vaccines Global Access (COVAX) program, which aims to ensure equal access to a potential COVID-19 vaccine for all member countries and to help lower-income countries secure doses.[237]

The nation employs a professional, volunteer military force of approximately 79,000 active personnel and 32,250 reserve personnel.[238] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force. In 2013, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately CA$19 billion, or around one percent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP).[239][240] Following the 2016 Defence Policy Review, called "Strong, Secure, Engaged", the Canadian government announced a 70 percent increase to the country's defence budget over the next decade.[241] The Canadian Forces will acquire 88 fighter planes and 15 naval surface combatants based on the Type 26 frigate design, the latter as part of the National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy.[242][243] Canada's total military expenditure is expected to reach CA$32.7 billion by 2027.[244] Canada's military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas, including in Iraq, Ukraine, and the Caribbean Sea.[245]

Provinces and territories

Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada

See also: Canadian federalism

Labelled map of Canada detailing its provinces and territories

Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories

Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[246] Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare.[247] Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[248]

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.[249] The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867 are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.[250] As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[251]

Economy

Main article: Economy of Canada

Further information: List of companies of Canada

Canada is the world's ninth-largest economy as of 2021, with a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.015 trillion.[252] It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world,[253] and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[254][255] Canada has a mixed economy ranking above the U.S. and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom,[256] and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity.[257] The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average.[258] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[259]

In 2018, Canadian trade in goods and services reached CA$1.5 trillion.[260] Canada's exports totalled over CA$585 billion, while its imported goods were worth over CA$607 billion, of which approximately CA$391 billion originated from the United States, CA$216 billion from non-U.S. sources.[260] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of CA$22 billion and a trade deficit in services of CA$25 billion.[260]

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[261] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[262] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.[263]

The Toronto financial district is the second largest financial centre in North America, the seventh largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada's finance industry.[264]

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.[265] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.[266] In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[267] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada, to encourage foreign investment.[268] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).[269] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[270]

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[263][271] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13 percent share of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[272] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[273] The federal Department of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[274] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[275]

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Canada

In 2018, Canada spent approximately CA$34.5 billion on domestic research and development, of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[276] As of 2020, the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[277] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[278] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[279] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[280] Canada was ranked 17th in the Global Innovation Index in 2019 and 2020.[281][282]

A Space Shuttle in space, with Earth in the background. A mechanical arm labelled "Canada" rises from the Shuttle.

The Canadarm robotic manipulator in action on Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-116 mission in 2006

Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery[283] and the polio vaccine[284] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[285] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[286][287] the development of the electron microscope,[288][289] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[290] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.[287][291]

The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.[292] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[293] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[294] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[295] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.[296]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Canada and List of cities in Canada

Two-colour map of Windsor area with towns along the St. Lawrence river

The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada and spans 1,200 km (750 mi).[297]

The 2016 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 35,151,728, an increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.[298][299] Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.[300] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.[301] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[302]

Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[303] driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification.[304][305] The Canadian public, as well as the major political parties, support the current level of immigration.[304][306] In 2019, a total of 341,180 immigrants were admitted to Canada, mainly from Asia.[307] India, Philippines and China are the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[308] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[309] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.[310][311]

Canada's population density, at 3.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (9.6/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[312] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[313] About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[314] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[297][313] An additional 30 percent live along the British Columbia Lower Mainland and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[315]

The majority of Canadians (67.7 percent) live in family households, 28.2 percent report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 4.1 percent.[316] 6.3 percent of households are multigenerational with 34.7 percent of young adults aged 20 to 34 living with their parents.[316] 69.0 percent of households own their dwellings with 58.6 percent of those homes having an ongoing mortgage.[317]

Largest census metropolitan areas in Canada by population (2016 census)viewtalkedit

CMA Province Population CMA Province Population

Toronto Ontario 5,928,040 London Ontario 494,069

Montreal Quebec 4,098,927 St. Catharines–Niagara Ontario 406,074

Vancouver British Columbia 2,463,431 Halifax Nova Scotia 403,390

Calgary Alberta 1,392,609 Oshawa Ontario 379,848

Ottawa–Gatineau Ontario–Quebec 1,323,783 Victoria British Columbia 367,770

Edmonton Alberta 1,321,426 Windsor Ontario 329,144

Quebec City Quebec 800,296 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 295,095

Winnipeg Manitoba 778,489 Regina Saskatchewan 236,481

Hamilton Ontario 747,545 Sherbrooke Quebec 212,105

Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo Ontario 523,894 St. John's Newfoundland and Labrador 205,955

Health

Main article: Healthcare in Canada

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[318][319] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984,[320] and is universal.[321] Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country."[322] However, 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[323] This mostly goes towards services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[323] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or utilizes secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[324][323]

graph of expenditures as described in caption

Health care cost rise based on total expenditure on health as percent of GDP. Countries shown are the United States, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, and Canada.

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a cost increase due to a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;[325] within twelve years it had risen to 42.4 years,[326] with a life expectancy of 81.1 years.[327] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health".[328] 80 percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[329] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries attributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined).[329] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[330][331]

In 2017, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $242 billion, or 11.5 percent of Canada's GDP for that year.[332] Canada's per-capita spending ranks as seventh on the list of countries by total health expenditure per capita in the OECD and above the average of 8.8 percent of GDP.[333] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s.[334] In 2017 Canada ranked above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[335] A comprehensive study from 2017 of the top 11 countries ranked Canada's health care system third-to-last.[336] Identified weaknesses of Canada's system were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[336]

Education

Main articles: Education in Canada and Higher education in Canada

portrait of the group of named world leaders

14th G7 summit leaders at the University of Toronto: (left to right) Jacques Delors, Ciriaco De Mita, Margaret Thatcher, Ronald Reagan, Brian Mulroney, François Mitterrand, Helmut Kohl and Noboru Takeshita.

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[337] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.[338] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[339] Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education provision.[340] Canada has a large number of Universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[341] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[342] The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.[343] Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.[344]

According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[345] the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[345] Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[346] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[347] As of 2014, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[348]

The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[349] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[326] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled as of 2016. In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.[350] The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,[351][352] ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[353][354]

Ethnicity

Main article: Canadians

According to the 2016 Canadian Census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32 percent of the population),[b] followed by English (18.3 percent), Scottish (13.9 percent), French (13.6 percent), Irish (13.4 percent), German (9.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent), Italian (4.6 percent), First Nations (4.4 percent), Indian (4.0 percent), and Ukrainian (3.9 percent).[358] There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,525,565 people.[359] The Indigenous population in Canada is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed an Indigenous identity in 2006. Another 22.3 percent of the population belonged to a non-Indigenous visible minority.[360] In 2016, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian (5.6 percent), Chinese (5.1 percent) and Black (3.5 percent).[360] Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[360] In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.[361] Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations.[362]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Canada

Map of Canada with English speakers and French speakers at a percentage

Approximately 98 percent of Canadians can speak either or both English and French:[363]

English – 56.9%

English and French – 16.1%

French – 21.3%

Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km2)

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 56 percent and 21 percent of Canadians, respectively.[364] As of the 2016 Census, just over 7.3 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Chinese (1,227,680 first-language speakers), Punjabi (501,680), Spanish (458,850), Tagalog (431,385), Arabic (419,895), German (384,040), and Italian (375,645).[364] Canada's federal government practises official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[365]

The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[366] Although more than 85 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[367] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[368] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[369]

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[370] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[371] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[372] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[373]

Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[374] American Sign Language (ASL) is spoken across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[375] Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is spoken primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.[376]

Religion

Main article: Religion in Canada

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[377] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[378] The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[379] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[380] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[381][382][383][384] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[385] but still believe in God.[386]

According to the 2011 National Household Survey, 67.3 percent of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, Roman Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7 percent of the population. Much of the remainder is made up of Protestants, who accounted for approximately 27 percent in a 2011 survey.[387][388] The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1 percent of Canadians), followed by the Anglican Church of Canada (5.0 percent), and various Baptist sects (1.9 percent).[3] Secularization has been growing since the 1960s.[389][390] In 2011, 23.9 percent declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5 percent in 2001.[391] Islam is the largest non-Christian religion in Canada, constituting 3.2 percent of its population. It is also the fastest growing religion in Canada.[392] 1.5 percent of the Canadian population is Hindu and 1.4 percent is Sikh.[3]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Canada

Monument to Multiculturalism, by Francesco Pirelli, in Toronto.

Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a "just society" are constitutionally protected.[393][394][395] Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[396] Multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,[397] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[398][399] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[400] However, as a whole, Canada is, in theory, a cultural mosaic—a collection of regional ethnic subcultures.[401]

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.[402] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control—alongside legislation with a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination), LGBTQ rights, assisted euthanasia and cannabis use—are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values.[403][404][405] Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[406][407]

Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[408] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[409] Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.[410] Many Canadian comedians have achieved international success such as in the American television and film industries and are amongst the most recognized in the world.[411]

Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[412] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[413]

Symbols

Main article: National symbols of Canada

The mother beaver sculpture outside the House of Commons

The mother beaver on the Canadian parliament's Peace Tower.[414] The five flowers on the shield each represent an ethnicity—Tudor rose: English; Fleur de lis: French; thistle: Scottish; shamrock: Irish; and leek: Welsh.

Canada's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Indigenous sources. The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.[415] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[416] Other prominent symbols include the national motto "A Mari Usque Ad Mare" ("From Sea to Sea"),[417] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,[415] and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk.[418] Material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.[418][419] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, the beaver on the nickel.[420] The penny, removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.[421] The Queen's image appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.[420]

Literature

Main article: Canadian literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[422] There are four major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature; nature, frontier life, Canada's position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.[423] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world's best.[424] Canada's ethnic and cultural diversity are reflected in its literature, with many of its most prominent modern writers focusing on ethnic life.[424] Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer internationally (especially since the deaths of Robertson Davies and Mordecai Richler) is Margaret Atwood, a prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic.[425] Numerous other Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,[426] including Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;[427] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who is perhaps best known for the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.[428]

Visual arts

Main article: Canadian art

Oil on canvas painting of a tree dominating its rocky landscape during a sunset

The Jack Pine by Tom Thomson. Oil on canvas, 1916, in the collection of the National Gallery of Canada.

Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as Tom Thomson – the country's most famous painter – and by the Group of Seven.[429] Thomson's career painting Canadian landscapes spanned a decade up to his death in 1917 at age 39.[430] The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the Group's ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston, and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the Group in 1926.[431] Associated with the Group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[432] Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[433]

Music

Main article: Music of Canada

Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure, that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations and television music video channels.[434] The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[435] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[436] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada's music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.[437] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame, established in 1976, honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[438]

Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, "The Bold Canadian", was written in 1812.[439] The national anthem, "O Canada", was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980.[440] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.[441]

Sports

Main article: Sports in Canada

Hockey players and fans celebrating

Canada's ice hockey victory at the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver

The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s,[442] culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, basketball, baseball and football.[443] Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[444] Golf, soccer, baseball, tennis, skiing, badminton, volleyball, cycling, swimming, bowling, rugby union, canoeing, equestrian, squash, and the study of martial arts are widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[445] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada's Sports Hall of Fame,[446] while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada's top athlete by a panel of journalists.[447] There are numerous other Sports Halls of Fame in Canada.[446]

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[448] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional sports in Canada include Canadian football, which is played in the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League lacrosse, and curling.[449]

Canada has enjoyed greater success at the Winter Olympics than at the Summer Olympics[450] and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events, including the 1976 Summer Olympics,[451] the 1988 Winter Olympics,[452] the 1994 Basketball World Championship,[453] the 2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup,[454] the 2010 Winter Olympics[455][456] and the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup.[457] Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto, the former being one of the largest sporting event hosted by the country.[458] The country is also scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup, alongside Mexico and the United States.[459]

See also

Maple Leaf (from roundel).svg Canada portal

Index of Canada-related articles

Outline of Canada

Topics by provinces and territories

Notes

"Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter ... adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe."[165][166] "The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology"[167][168][169][170]

All citizens of Canada are classified as "Canadians" as defined by Canada's nationality laws. However, "Canadian" as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. "Canadian" was included as an example on the English questionnaire and "Canadien" as an example on the French questionnaire.[355] "The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones), however no-longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.[356][357]

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Jortner, Adam (2011). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-19-976529-4.

Kallmann, Helmut; Potvin, Gilles (February 7, 2018). "O Canada". Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 27, 2013.

"Hymne national du Canada". Canadian Heritage. June 23, 2008. Archived from the original on January 29, 2009. Retrieved June 26, 2008.

Roxborough, Henry (1975). The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada. pp. 30–43.

Lindsay, Peter; West, J. Thomas (September 30, 2016). "Canadian Sports History". The Canadian Encyclopedia.

"National Sports of Canada Act". Government of Canada. November 5, 2015. Archived from the original on November 24, 2015. Retrieved November 23, 2015.

"Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010)" (PDF). Government of Canada. 2013. p. 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2017.

Victor J. Danilov (1997). Hall of fame museums: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-313-30000-4.

Edward Zawadzki (2001). The Ultimate Canadian Sports Trivia Book. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88882-237-6.

Butenko, Sergiy; Gil-Lafuente, Jaime; Pardalos, Panos M. (2010). Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 42–44. ISBN 978-3-642-13205-6.

Morrow, Don; Wamsley, Kevin B. (2016). Sport in Canada: A History. Oxford University Press. pp. xxi–intro. ISBN 978-0-19-902157-4.

Mallon, Bill; Heijmans, Jeroen (2011). Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement. Scarecrow Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8108-7522-7.

Howell, Paul Charles (2009). Montreal Olympics: An Insider's View of Organizing a Self-financing Games. McGill-Queen's University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7735-7656-8.

Horne, John; Whannel, Garry (2016). Understanding the Olympics. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-317-49519-2.

Blevins, David (2012). The Sports Hall of Fame Encyclopedia: Baseball, Basketball, Football, Hockey, Soccer. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1222. ISBN 978-0-8108-6130-5.

Parent, Milena M.; Chappelet, Jean-Loup (February 20, 2015). Routledge Handbook of Sports Event Management. Taylor & Francis. p. 464. ISBN 978-1-135-10437-5.

United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development (January 2006). The Economic Impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005. U.S. G.P.O. ISBN 978-0-16-076789-0.

Fromm, Zuzana (2006). Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-197843-0.

Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women's World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order. Canada Border Services Agency. 2015.

Peterson, David (July 10, 2014). "Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020.

"World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament". BBC Sport. June 13, 2018. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved June 13, 2018.

Further reading

Main articles: Bibliography of Canada and Bibliography of Canadian history

Overview

Marsh, James H. (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.

Culture

Cohen, Andrew (2007). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.

Vance, Jonathan F. (2011). A History of Canadian Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544422-3.

Demography and statistics

Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967. Statistics Canada. 2008.

Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-7854-8.

Canada Year Book, 2012 (Report). Statistics Canada. December 2012. ISSN 0068-8142. Catalogue no 11-402-XWE.

Economy

Easterbrook, W.T.; Aitken, Hugh G. J. (2015). Canadian Economic History. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. ISBN 978-1-4426-5814-1.

Economic Forecast Summary (December 2020). OECD. 2021. – (Previous surveys)

Jones-Imhotep, Edward; Adcock, Tina (2018). Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3726-2.

Foreign relations and military

Conrad, John (2011). Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55488-981-5.

Geography and climate

Rumney, Thomas A. (2009). Canadian Geography: A Scholarly Bibliography. Plattsburgh State University. ISBN 978-0-8108-6718-5.

Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.

Government and law

Jacob, Joseph W. (2007). Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: Democracy for the People and for Each Person. Trafford Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4269-8016-9.

Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada (4th ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.

Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada. Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.

History

Careless, J. M. S. (2012). Canada: A Story of Challenge (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.

Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.

Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994). Canadian History. 1 & 2. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5016-8, ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3

Social welfare

Finkel, Alvin (2006). Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-475-1.

Thompson, Valerie D. (2015). Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-927406-31-1.

Burke, Sara Z.; Milewski, Patrice (2011). Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9577-0.

External links

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Categories: Canada1867 establishments in CanadaCountries in North AmericaEnglish-speaking countries and territoriesFederal monarchiesFrench-speaking countries and territoriesG20 nationsG7 nationsMember states of NATOMember states of the Commonwealth of NationsMember states of the Organisation internationale de la FrancophonieCurrent member states of the United NationsStates and territories established in 1867Former British coloniesNorthern America

Neoplan Bus GmbH is a German automotive company that manufactures buses, trolleybuses and coaches. It is a subsidiary of MAN Truck & Bus SE.

The company was founded by Gottlob Auwärter in Stuttgart in 1935, and manufactured bodywork for bus and truck chassis. By 1953, the company had moved away from manufacturing buses on truck chassis, to a partial monocoque design with a steel tube skeleton, providing the structural support, enhanced by welded side panels. The engine was moved to the rear. In 1957, air suspension was made available.

In 1961, a new bus design, the Typ Hamburg, was unveiled at the Geneva Motor Show. Developed by the founder's eldest son, Albrecht Auwärter, and another student, Swiss national Bob Lee, as part of their dissertation at Hamburg University. The design was the first bus to allow passengers to regulate their fresh air supply through a nozzle from two air ducts, commonly seen in contemporary designs, as well as offering air suspension.

Both Albrecht and Lee joined Neoplan after graduating from the university. Albrecht took over management of the company in 1965, and Bob Lee later became head of Engineering and Design.

In 1964, the founder's second son, Konrad Auwärter, developed a double-deck bus design for a service bus as part of his dissertation. The "Do-Bus" design had low weight, and could carry over 100 passengers. It also featured a low-frame front axle with forward-mounted steering gear that permitted a low, flat floor. The double-deck principle was applied to the coach design, creating a high-capacity comfortable touring vehicle. This vehicle was known as the Skyliner.

In 1971, the Cityliner was introduced to the public. This design had a passenger platform above the driver's cab, and included an onboard toilet. The vehicle also made use of glass-fibre reinforced plastic for certain areas of the body; this was the first instance when this technique was used.

A second manufacturing facility opened in Pilsting in 1973, and a third opened in Kumasi, Ghana in December 1974 to support increasing orders.

Several more plants were added in the 1980s, including two in the United States. The United States plants were later spun off into a separate, and now defunct, independent company (Neoplan USA) that used the Neoplan name under licence.

Further manufacturing facilities were opened during the 1990s and 2000s.

The Starliner was introduced in 1996, and would go on to win the Bus of the Year award for two consecutive years – in 1998 and 1999.

In 1999 the company unveiled a prototype fuel cell bus.

In 2001, Neoplan, or correctly, "Gottlob Auwärter GmbH & Co KG" was acquired by MAN AG subsidiary MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG to form Neoman Bus GmbH. The Starliner won the Bus of the Year award for two more consecutive years in 2001 and 2002.

In 2007, a new Auwärter Museum was opened in Landau an der Isar.

On 1 February 2008, Neoman Bus GmbH was fully integrated into the bus division of the larger MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Group, and ceased to exist in its own right. Neoplan and MAN Truck & Bus began operating as two separate but integrated marques of MAN Nutzfahrzeuge Group.

Louis Vuitton Malletier, commonly known as Louis Vuitton, is a French high-end luxury fashion house and company founded in 1854 by Louis Vuitton. The label's LV monogram appears on most of its products, ranging from luxury trunks and leather goods to ready-to-wear, shoes, watches, jewelry, accessories, sunglasses and books. Louis Vuitton is one of the world's leading international fashion houses. It sells its products through standalone boutiques, lease departments in high-end departmental stores, and through the e-commerce section of its website. For six consecutive years (2006–2012), Louis Vuitton was named the world's most valuable luxury brand. Its 2012 valuation was US$25.9 billion. In 2013, the valuation of the brand was US$28.4 billion with revenue of US$9.4 billion. The company operates in 50 countries with more than 460 stores worldwide.

The Louis Vuitton label was founded by Vuitton in 1854 on Rue Neuve des Capucines in Paris, France. Louis Vuitton started at $10,567 as a sales price. Louis Vuitton had observed that the HJ Cave Osilite trunk could be easily stacked. In 1858, Vuitton introduced his flat-topped trunks with Trianon canvas, making them lightweight and airtight. Before the introduction of Vuitton's trunks, rounded-top trunks were used, generally to promote water runoff, and thus could not be stacked. It was Vuitton's gray Trianon canvas flat trunk that allowed the ability to stack them on top of another with ease for voyages. Many other luggage makers later imitated Vuitton's style and design.

The company participated in the 1867 Universal Exhibition in Paris. In 1871, Ōyama Iwao became the first recorded Japanese customer, ordering a set of luggage while in Paris as a military observer during the Franco-Prussian War. To protect against the duplication of his look, Vuitton changed the Trianon design to a beige and brown stripes design in 1876. By 1885, the company opened its first store in London on Oxford Street. Soon thereafter, due to the continuing imitation of his look, in 1888, Vuitton created the Damier Canvas pattern, which bore a logo that reads "marque L. Vuitton déposée", which translates into "L. Vuitton registered trademark". In 1892, Louis Vuitton died, and the company's management passed to his son.

After the death of his father, Georges Vuitton began a campaign to build the company into a worldwide corporation, exhibiting the company's products at the Chicago World's Fair in 1893. In 1896, the company launched the signature Monogram Canvas and made the worldwide patents on it. Its graphic symbols, including quatrefoils and flowers (as well as the LV monogram), were based on the trend of using Japanese Mon designs in the late Victorian era. The patents later proved to be successful in stopping counterfeiting. In this same year, Georges travelled to the United States, where he toured cities such as New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago, selling Vuitton products. In 1901, the Louis Vuitton Company introduced the Steamer Bag, a smaller piece of luggage designed to be kept inside Vuitton luggage trunks.

By 1913, the Louis Vuitton Building opened on the Champs-Elysees. It was the largest travel-goods store in the world at the time. Stores also opened in New York, Bombay, Washington, London, Alexandria, and Buenos Aires as World War I began. Afterwards, in 1930, the Keepall bag was introduced. During 1932, LV introduced the Noé bag. This bag was originally made for champagne vintners to transport bottles. Soon thereafter, the Louis Vuitton Speedy bag was introduced (both are still manufactured today). In 1936 Georges Vuitton died, and his son, Gaston-Louis Vuitton, assumed control of the company.

During World War II, Louis Vuitton collaborated with the Nazis during the German occupation of France. The French book Louis Vuitton, A French Saga, authored by French journalist Stephanie Bonvicini and published by Paris-based Editions Fayard tells how members of the Vuitton family actively aided the Vichy government led by Marshal Philippe Pétain and increased their wealth from their business affairs with the Germans. The family set up a factory dedicated to producing artefacts glorifying Pétain, including more than 2,500 busts.

Caroline Babulle, a spokeswoman for the publisher, Fayard, said: "They have not contested anything in the book, but they are trying to bury it by pretending it doesn't exist." Responding to the book's release in 2004, a spokesman for LVMH said: "This is ancient history. The book covers a period when it was family-run and long before it became part of LVMH. We are diverse, tolerant and all the things a modern company should be." An LVMH spokesman told the satirical magazine Le Canard Enchaîné: "We don't deny the facts, but regrettably the author has exaggerated the Vichy episode. We haven't put any pressure on anyone. If the journalists want to censor themselves, then that suits us fine." That publication was the only French periodical to mention the book, LVMH is the country's biggest advertiser in the press.

During this period, Louis Vuitton began to incorporate leather into most of its products, which ranged from small purses and wallets to larger pieces of luggage. In order to broaden its line, the company revamped its signature Monogram Canvas in 1959 to make it more supple, allowing it to be used for purses, bags, and wallets. It is believed that in the 1920s, counterfeiting returned as a greater issue to continue on into the 21st century.[6] In 1966, the Papillon was launched (a cylindrical bag that is still popular today). By 1977 with annual revenue up to 70 million Francs (US$14.27 million). A year later, the label opened its first stores in Japan: in Tokyo and Osaka. In 1983, the company joined with America's Cup to form the Louis Vuitton Cup, a preliminary competition (known as an eliminatory regatta) for the yacht race. Louis Vuitton later expanded its presence in Asia with the opening of a store in Taipei, Taiwan in 1983 and Seoul, South Korea in 1984. In the following year, 1985, the Epi leather line was introduced.

1987 saw the creation of LVMH. Moët et Chandon and Hennessy, leading manufacturers of champagne and cognac, merged respectively with Louis Vuitton to form the luxury goods conglomerate. Profits for 1988 were reported to have been up by 49% more than in 1987. By 1989, Louis Vuitton came to operate 130 stores worldwide. Entering the 1990s, Yves Carcelle was named president of LV, and in 1992, Louis Vuitton entered mainland China by opening its first store in Beijing at the Palace Hotel. Further products became introduced such as the Taiga leather line in 1993, and the literature collection of Voyager Avec... in 1994. In 1996, the celebration of the Centennial of the Monogram Canvas was held in seven cities worldwide.

In 1997, Louis Vuitton made Marc Jacobs its Artistic Director. In March of the following year, he designed and introduced the company's first "prêt-à-porter" line of clothing for men and women. Also in this year products introduced included the Monogram Vernis line, the LV scrapbooks, and the Louis Vuitton City Guide. The last events in the 20th century were the release of the mini monogram line in 1999. The opening of the first store in Africa in Marrakech, Morocco, in 2000. Finally, the auction at the International Film Festival in Venice, Italy, where the vanity case "amfAR" designed by Sharon Stone was sold, with the proceeds going to the Foundation for AIDS Research (also in 2000).

By 2001, Stephen Sprouse, in collaboration with Marc Jacobs, designed a limited-edition line of Vuitton bags that featured graffiti written over the monogram pattern. The graffiti read Louis Vuitton and, on certain bags, the name of the bag (such as Keepall and Speedy). Certain pieces, which featured the graffiti without the Monogram Canvas background, were only available on Louis Vuitton's V.I.P. customer list. Jacobs also created the charm bracelet, the first-ever piece of jewelry from LV, within the same year.

In 2002, the Tambour watch collection was introduced. During this year, the LV building in Tokyo's Ginza district was opened, and the brand collaborated with Bob Wilson for its Christmas windows scenography. In 2003, Takashi Murakami, in collaboration with Marc Jacobs, masterminded the new Monogram Multicolore canvas range of handbags and accessories. This range included the monograms of the standard Monogram Canvas but in 33 different colors on either a white or black background. (The classic canvas features gold monograms on a brown background.) Murakami also created the Cherry Blossom pattern, in which smiling cartoon faces in the middle of pink and yellow flowers were sporadically placed atop the Monogram Canvas. This pattern appeared on a limited number of pieces. The production of this limited-edition run was discontinued in June 2003. Within 2003, the stores in Moscow, Russia, and in New Delhi, India were opened, the Utah and Suhali leather lines were released, and the 20th anniversary of the LV Cup was held.

In 2004, Louis Vuitton celebrated its 150th anniversary. The brand also inaugurated stores in New York City (on Fifth Avenue), São Paulo, Mexico City, Cancun and Johannesburg. It also opened its first global store in Shanghai. By 2005, Louis Vuitton reopened its Champs-Élysées store in Paris designed by the American Architect Eric Carlson and released the Speedy watch collection. In 2006, LV held the inauguration of the Espace Louis Vuitton on its 7th floor.[10] In 2008, Louis Vuitton released the Damier Graphite canvas. The canvas features the classic Damier pattern but in black and grey, giving it a masculine look and urban feel. Also in 2008, Pharrell Williams co-designed a series of jewellery ("Blason") and glasses for Louis Vuitton.[18]

In 2010, Louis Vuitton opened what is described as their most luxurious store in London. In early 2011, Louis Vuitton hired Kim Jones as its "Men Ready-to-Wear Studio and Style Director". He became the lead designer of menswear while working under the company-wide artistic directorship of Marc Jacobs. On 17 September 2011, the company opened its Louis Vuitton Island Maison at Marina Bay Sands, Singapore.