Roman Bulatetsky

Childhood… wooden toys

The history of LEGO dates back to 1932, when Ole Kirk Christiansen founded a company in Denmark for the production of goods for everyday use. Ole made products from wood, while initially the main profit of the company was brought by stairs and ironing boards, the demand for which fell sharply during the global financial crisis.

We had to look for a new niche. And Ole saw it in the production of wooden toys, as the demand for them did not weaken even in difficult times from a financial point of view. Ole's main assistant at that time was already his son, who worked with his father from the age of 12.

Starting to produce toys, Christiansen began to look for a name for his company. He gave the task to all factory workers to propose their own version of the name. There were many proposals, but in the end they chose what the founder himself came up with - the word LEGO, which came from two others - Leg and Godt, which together mean "play well". A few years later, the founder learned that the very phrase "LEGO" in Latin means "I study" or "I add." It is obvious that the realization of this seriously influenced the future history of the company.

Although, to say that the whole company thought about the name is too loud. Only 7 people worked at LEGO at that time, enthusiastic carpenters who take great pleasure in creating new things. And they already then cared about the quality of products. Above their workplaces was a sign hung on the wall by Ole Christiansen: "Only the best is worthy."

By 1936, the company already had at its disposal a set of 42 different toys. At the same time, all of them were already far from the cheapest pleasure (now LEGO is, as before, quite expensive). At the same time, the company still continued to manufacture not only toys, but also other wood products.

In the 1940s, many changes took place in the history of the company. First, her only factory burned down. Immediately after the restoration, it became clear that now LEGO will deal only with toys. The staff growth continued all these years and reached 40 people by 1943, and exactly one year later the Christiansens finally registered the company officially, calling it "LegetOjsfabrikken LEGO Billund A/S".

In 1947, a significant event takes place that forever changed the history of the company. LEGO receives the rights to the development of the English psychologist Mr. Hilary Harry Fisher Page. Actually, it was a small plastic cube that could be connected to other similar parts, thanks to which it was even possible to assemble some kind of small structure, which, however, at that time did not have much attachment capabilities, and therefore disintegrated as quickly as and was about to. But this is a start. By that time, son Ole Gottfried was already 30 years old, and he was no less than his father involved in the affairs of the company. Gottfried understood that the future lay with such toys.

At LEGO, they began to gradually move away from wood, in favor of plastic. Therefore, the Christiansen acquire this year the largest plastic mold in Denmark, which allows them to put the production of such toys on stream (it must be said that the Danes had to pay as much as 30 thousand local crowns for this mold, which is a lot, considering that a very expensive toy then it cost 36 crowns).

At the end of the 40s, the company had about 200 different models of plastic and wooden toys in stock. But LEGO was not yet what we know it today. The bricks, the rights to which were received by the LEGO company, were not yet suitable for a full-fledged designer. That's why they weren't released. Until 1958, when the (already) head of the company, Gottfried Christiansen, patented a system of building elements from cubes. It was a completely new system, which made it possible to connect the details of the designer much more firmly. Now he could be called just that. Constructor.

However, before the advent of the famous LEGO bricks, another major event took place under the leadership of Gottfried. In 1955, a LEGO themed set of toys was released. It was a prototype of what we will see in many years, when the company will release its most popular thematic series (space, city, knights, cowboys, and so on). The first sets became very popular.

A new future for the LEGO brand

In 1960, the company's workshop, which was engaged in the production of wooden toys under the LEGO brand, burns down. The company came to the conclusion that they would not resume their production, and the repaired workshop would deal with plastics. By that time, LEGO was already selling 50 of its construction kits in many countries around the world. And in 1962, the LEGO private airline was opened. Designers began to carry in the United States.

Undoubtedly, entering this extremely profitable market was a very important event for the Danes, who tried to increase the sales of their toys around the world. 2 years after they open their runway, LEGO starts shipping a small building guide in their building kits that tells you what you need to do to assemble the model shown on the package. Instructions will soon become an integral part of every LEGO set.

In addition, at this time, the company begins to work more carefully with customers, which improves the quality of designers. LEGO was one of those firms that asked the customer what he needed. And only then began to develop the product. This collaboration resulted in the emergence of a super-successful project - a set of railroads from the LEGO constructor.

Needless to say, by the mid-1960s, more than 500 people worked at the main LEGO factory.

But the company did not stop evolving. In 1967, the DUPLO cube was born, which became a key figure in the eponymous set for young children. While the patenting operations for the company's new development were underway, they were already thinking about the opening of the LEGOLAND park, which appeared in Denmark a year after the appearance of DUPLO, in the city of Billund.

In addition, critics also appreciated the LEGO company this year. She was awarded the best toy of the year in Luxembourg. But it was still the beginning of the formation of a company that wins children's hearts ...

The rapid development of the LEGO range

If we talk about LEGO products of those years, it may seem that the company focused exclusively on representatives of the male half of humanity. This is not entirely true, since there were also products for girls in the LEGO assortment. For example, in the 70s, dollhouses with furniture were produced. And the Duplo project was designed equally for both girls and boys. Although, of course, even today most of the LEGO products are created with an emphasis on the male audience. And this is not discrimination, they just love designers more.

In 1973, the famous LEGO logo was designed, which today is known to most people on the planet. After the appearance of the new logo, the company began to open production outside of Denmark. Mountainous Switzerland was the first country to host a LEGO factory.

By 1977, LEGO was headed by Ole Christiansen's grandson Keld. By that time, LEGO had already released many different sets for every taste, among which there were even technical solutions to some extent. At this time, sets appeared containing figures with movable limbs. It was in 1979 that the first truly themed LEGO set appeared, which would mark the beginning of the classification of the company's products until today - this will be the LEGOLAND Space set. Space will be just the beginning for LEGO. But a very successful start.

The LEGO range grew by leaps and bounds. But the main thing is that consumers adored the products of this company. She was really original, attractive, interesting. In 1980, LEGO lovers expressed their love for the company by building a huge tower of 13.1 meters from this set. Impressive, isn't it? But do not think that this is the tallest tower created from LEGO. Not at all! In the late 90s, a 24.88 meter LEGO tower was built in Moscow. She entered the Guinness Book of Records.

The success of space, and some other LEGO sets, has been overwhelming. But the company got even more from the "Castle" set, which was released in 1984. The medieval theme has proven to be very popular among LEGO fans. In the same year, experimental models from the Lego set were shown. After 2 years, the project received serious development, becoming in some way a guide for schoolchildren to the world of acquaintance with robots. This set was specially developed for educational purposes, but has gained great popularity around the world, despite the price and complexity.

In the late 80s, new LEGO sets appeared all the time. In addition, the company's amusement park also developed. In 1986, LEGO became the supplier of toys to the Danish royal court. Honorary title, which is the best advertisement.

In the 1990s, LEGO will be successfully sold all over the world, which will be flooded with numerous fakes like Atko. However, they will all differ from the original in their much lower quality (which, however, will be confirmed by the price).

Nowadays

Now the LEGO company is at the stage of getting out of a protracted crisis. Simple toys have lost their appeal due to the ubiquity of computer games. In addition, the Danish company some time ago became a real victim of diversification. LEGO perfume sets, clothes, and much more began to appear, which greatly interfered with the brand and brought only losses, which in 2003 amounted to about $ 300 million. In addition, the company's production process was not very efficient, because of which it lost money, did not minimize costs to the maximum. In order to rectify this deplorable situation, LEGO invited CEO Jorgen Vig Knudstorp, who immediately got down to business.

First, he moved production to cheaper countries. Secondly, he abandoned unprofitable businesses and innovations in the company. In addition, Jorgen turned the company's attention to the Internet, where it can get new ideas from its customers.

Things are looking up for LEGO. And I want to believe that the company will regain its former glory, not buried under the weight of computer games.

For centuries, people have claimed that dogs are one of their closest friends. Of all the domesticated animals, dogs can fulfill a variety of roles: protector, helper, rescuer, and companion. Dogs are man's best friends and have been that way for centuries. The relationship between dogs and humans is very deep and ancient.

Dogs and humans began living together 15,000 years ago when dogs migrated with humans throughout East Asia. Their bond with humans was very strong because both humans and dogs are social creatures.

Although domestic dogs are 99% related to wolves in their DNA, dogs are not like wolves, instead of reacting defensively to others, they radiate warmth and affection, making them a prime candidate for man's best friend.

Dogs have been domesticated to the point where they need us to survive. But we can also find that we need them in much the same way, i.e. humans and dogs have now developed a symbiotic relationship. Most dog owners will tell you that their dog is part of the family. Because a domestic faithful dog gives comfort, a warm paw and love.

Where did the phrase "man's best friend" come from?

In fact, the phrase "man's best friend" originated in the US Supreme Court in 1870, when a talented lawyer named George Graham West defended a man who was very fond of his dog named Old Drum. The man West defended claimed that when his neighbor killed Old Drum for trespassing, he took the life of more than just a pet - he killed a close family member.

West famously stated, "The only absolute, unselfish friend a man can have in this selfish world—one that never proves ungrateful or conniving—is his dog."

A dog is more than just a pet

Dogs have proven time and again their loyalty, kindness, understanding and indomitable spirit. They happily greet us no matter what and make us feel better, even in a bad mood. Waving his tail in front of us and playing with us.

Whether it is herding sheep, hunting animals, supporting people with disabilities, or simply working as a companion, unlike other pets, dogs help people with everyday tasks, many of which are impossible without them. Starting in the 16th century, dogs were helpers for blind people, and by the 1970s, dog trainers had developed methods so they could help people with disabilities as well.

Dogs also help prevent various crimes and save lives, as is the case with dogs that are looking for drugs and bombs. German Shepherds, a 200 year old breed, are most often used as assistants for police officers around the world.

Lev Landau was born on the shores of the Caspian Sea in the oil capital of the Russian Empire, the city of Baku. In the middle of the nineteenth century, the first oil well was drilled in the nearby village of Bibi-Heybat, and a few years later they began to drive kerosene on an industrial scale at the new plant. Sensitive to the smell of money, large capital rushed to Baku in a stormy stream. David Lvovich Landau, the son of a scholarly rabbi from Prague, was directly related to the oil boom - he worked as an engineer in a large Baku company. Thanks to a successful career, David Lvovich was a very wealthy person. In 1905, at the age of thirty-nine, he married twenty-nine-year-old Lyubov Veniaminovna Garkavi, a girl of unusual and difficult fate. She was born into a large poor family. Having saved up a certain amount of money by tutoring, Lyubov Veniaminovna spent it on paying for a training course at the University of Zurich. A year later, she continued her education in St. Petersburg at the Women's Medical Institute, after graduating from which she took up gynecology and obstetrics in the Baku oil fields. The independent and independent nature of Lyubov Veniaminovna encouraged her to be active even after the wedding, despite the fact that all material problems remained in the past. She worked as a sanitary doctor, an intern in a military infirmary, and a teacher.

In 1906, the first child was born in the Landau family - daughter Sonya, and on January 22, 1908 the second - son Lev. Parents attached the most serious importance to the education and upbringing of children - a French governess sat with them, teachers of drawing, gymnastics, and music were invited to the house. Leo and Sonya mastered the German and French languages ​​to perfection in early childhood. The problems began when David and Lyubov Landau decided to instill in their children a love of music. Sonechka, having unlearned playing the piano for ten years, at the end of her education categorically refused to approach the instrument in the future. The future academician, from childhood, did not tolerate violence against himself, immediately resolutely refused to indulge his parental whims. But Leo learned to write and read at the age of four. In addition, the boy passionately fell in love with arithmetic, which made his parents reconsider their views on his future.

In the gymnasium, Lev greatly upset the teacher of literature with a clumsy handwriting, but in the exact sciences he plunged teachers into awe with his knowledge. He learned to differentiate and integrate very early, but in the gymnasium these skills were not useful to him. These sections of mathematics went far beyond the scope of classical school education, and in addition, the educational institution was soon closed, and all students were dismissed for indefinite holidays. Soon, practical parents assigned their son to a commercial school, later renamed the Baku Economic College. The entrance exams were not difficult, and Landau was immediately admitted to the penultimate course. Fortunately for science, after graduating from a technical school, the young man was still young to work as an accountant. He decided to continue his education - now at Baku University.

Having brilliantly passed the entrance exams in 1922, Lev Davidovich was enrolled in two departments of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics - natural (which focused on chemistry) and mathematics. Fourteen-year-old Landau turned out to be the youngest student at the university, but he stood out among other students not at all by his age. Leo, who was still quite a boy, allowed himself to argue with eminent teachers. Mathematics in an educational institution was taught by a certain Lukin, a former professor at the Nikolaev Academy of the General Staff, whose ferocity has firmly entered the local folklore. The students called him “general” behind his back. Once, at a lecture, Landau ventured into a furious skirmish with him. From the outside, it looked as if the teenager was in a cage with a tiger. However, the end was unexpected - the discouraged "general", admitting his mistake, congratulated Lev Davidovich in front of everyone on the right decision. Since then, the professor, meeting Landau in the corridors of the university, always shook his hand. And soon the parents of the young genius received advice from the leaders of the university to transfer their son to Leningrad, which at that time was the capital of Soviet science. Landau received a letter of recommendation from the dean of the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics, which said: “... I consider it my duty to note the extraordinary talents of this young student, who simultaneously passes the disciplines of two departments with amazing ease and great depth. ... I am firmly convinced that subsequently Leningrad University will be rightfully proud of the fact that it has prepared an outstanding scientist for the country.

So in 1924, Lev Davidovich ended up in the northern capital of Russia, where he took up science with redoubled energy. Working eighteen hours a day was not the best way for his health. Chronic insomnia forced Landau to turn to a doctor, who categorically forbade the young man to work at night. The doctor's advice went to the future academician for the future - from that moment on and throughout the rest of his life, the scientist never worked at night again. And about himself, he always spoke with a smile: “I don’t have a physique, but a body subtraction.”

At Leningrad University, Lev Davidovich first heard about quantum mechanics. Many years later he would say: “The work of Schrödinger and Heisenberg delighted me. Never before have I felt with such clarity the power of human genius." The new physical theory was in its infancy in those years, and, as a result, there was no one to teach quantum mechanics to Landau. The young man himself had to master the most complex mathematical apparatus and the basic ideas of new physics. As a result, he developed a characteristic style of scientific work for the rest of his life - he always preferred fresh magazines to books, saying that "thick folios do not carry anything new, they are a cemetery in which the thoughts of the past are buried."

In 1927, Lev Davidovich graduated from the university and entered the graduate school of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology (Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology), joining a group of theorists led by Yakov Frenkel. And in October 1929, Landau, who was considered the best graduate student of the Leningrad Institute of Physics and Technology, went on his first business trip abroad on a ticket from the People's Commissariat of Education. The trip turned out to be an extraordinary success for the talented young man - at that time a brilliant scientist, one of the founders of modern physics, Albert Einstein lived and worked in Berlin. Max Born, Niels Bohr, Wolfgang Pauli, Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg and other prominent ministers of science and authors of quantum mechanics worked in Germany, Switzerland and Denmark. Landau met Einstein at the University of Berlin. They had a long conversation, during which Lev Davidovich, wasting no time, tried to prove to his interlocutor the validity of one of the main postulates of quantum mechanics - the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. The arguments and youthful enthusiasm of the twenty-year-old physicist did not convince Einstein, who was hardened in disputes with Bohr and believed all his life that "God does not play dice." Shortly after this conversation, Lev Davidovich, at the invitation of Max Born, visited the University of Göttingen. And in Leipzig, he met with another no less brilliant physicist, Heisenberg.

At the beginning of 1930, a Soviet scientist appeared in Copenhagen on Blegdamsvey Street at number 15. This building was known throughout the world for the fact that the famous Niels Bohr lived in it. As soon as he crossed the threshold of his apartment, Landau was terribly embarrassed and, at the same time, delighted by the welcoming words of the Danish scientist: “It's great that you came to us! We'll learn a lot from you!" And although it later turned out that the famous physicist, out of the kindness of his soul, greeted most of his guests in this way, in this case, this phrase probably sounded more appropriate than usual. The most talented, energetic and witty Landau surprisingly quickly and easily got along with the venerable scientist - the national hero of his country, but who did not lose his human simplicity and unfeigned "scientific" curiosity. The Austrian scientist Otto Frisch, who was present at one of their conversations, wrote: “This scene is forever imprinted in my memory. Landau and Bohr grappled with each other. The Russian was sitting on a bench, gesticulating frantically. Leaning over him, the Dane waved his arms and shouted something. None of them even thought that there was something strange in such a conduct of scientific discussion. Another curious sketch belongs to the Belgian physicist Leon Rosenfeld, who said: “I arrived at the institute in February 1931, and the first person I met was Georgy Gamow. I asked him about the news and he showed me his pencil drawing. It showed Landau, tied to a chair, with his mouth tied, and Bohr, who stood nearby and said: “Wait, wait, let me at least say a word!”. Many years later, Niels Bohr admits that he always considered Lev Davidovich his best student. And the wife of the great Dane wrote in her memoirs: “Niels fell in love with Landau from the first day. He was terribly unbearable, he interrupted, ridiculed, looked like a disheveled boy. But how talented he was and how truthful!

Landau's next stop in Europe was Great Britain, where Paul Dirac and Ernest Rutherford worked. In those years, Peter Kapitsa also worked in Cambridge at the Cavendish Laboratory, with his wit and outstanding abilities as an experimental physicist, who managed to win the favor of Rutherford. Thus, during the year spent in Europe, Lev Davidovich talked with almost all the "first-rate" physicists. The works of the Soviet scientist, published during this time, received high marks and clearly showed that, despite his age, he is already one of the leading theorists of the world.

Returning to the Soviet Union in 1931, Landau found himself in the midst of a lively discussion of a certain discovery that promised incredible profits for our country. The author of this invention, connected, by the way, with the properties of electrical insulators, was the head of the Leningrad Physicotechnical Institute, the excellent Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe. Unfortunately, even great people are not immune from delusions, and Ioffe's new discovery just belonged to the category of delusions. Very quickly, Lev Davidovich found the master's mistake, and the enthusiasm of the discoverers turned into disappointment. In addition, the matter was complicated by the fact that the young theoretician was too sharp-tongued and did not at all think about the need to feel sorry for the vanity of his colleagues. The completely forgivable persistence of Abram Fedorovich, with which the head of the Physicotechnical Institute defended his errors, led to a final break. It all ended with the famous academician publicly declaring that there was not a drop of common sense in the latest work of his graduate student. But Landau was not the kind of person to remain silent in response. His condescending remark: “Theoretical physics is a complex science, and not everyone can understand it,” is firmly entrenched in the annals of history. Of course, after this incident, it became much more difficult for Lev Davidovich to work at the Leningrad Physicotechnical Institute. Much later, he will say that he felt "somehow uncomfortable" there.

Shortly before the events described, at the suggestion of the same Abram Ioffe, in the city of Kharkov - the then capital of Ukraine - the UFTI (Ukrainian Institute of Physics and Technology) was organized. In August 1932, Landau was invited by Professor Ivan Obreimov, director of the Kharkov Physical and Technical Institute, to head the theoretical department. At the same time, he accepted the Department of Theoretical Physics of the Mechanical Engineering Institute of the city of Kharkov. Impressed by the scientific and educational institutions seen in Europe, the twenty-four-year-old physicist set himself the task of creating, virtually from scratch, a school of theoretical physics of the highest class in the Soviet Union. Looking ahead, we note that thanks to the efforts of Lev Davidovich, such a school eventually appeared in our country. It was formed by students of Landau, who passed his famous "theoretical minimum", which included nine exams - seven in theoretical physics and two in mathematics. This truly unique test could be tried no more than three times, and in twenty-five years only forty-three people overcame the "theorimum". The first of them was the outstanding Soviet scientist Alexander Kompaneets. Evgeny Lifshits, Isaak Pomeranchuk, Alexander Akhiezer, who later became well-known theoretical physicists, passed the test after him.

The private life of Landau is curious. He was interested in everything that was going on in the world. Every morning Lev Davidovich began with the study of newspapers. The scientist knew history very well, remembered many poems by heart, in particular Lermontov, Nekrasov and Zhukovsky. He loved cinema very much. Unfortunately, during the Kharkov period of his life, Lev Davidovich was photographed extremely rarely. On the other hand, rather picturesque memories left about the scientist by one of his students have been preserved: “I met Landau in 1935, when I arrived in Kharkov for graduation practice. Already at the first meeting, he struck me with his originality: thin, tall, with curly black hair, lively black eyes and long arms, actively gesticulating during the conversation, somewhat extravagantly (in my opinion) dressed. He wore an elegant blue jacket with metal buttons. Sandals on bare feet and kolomyanka trousers did not harmonize very well with them. He did not wear a tie then, preferring an unbuttoned collar.

One day, Professor Landau appeared at the university at a graduation party and categorically demanded to introduce him to "the prettiest girl." He was introduced to a graduate of the Faculty of Chemistry Concordia (Kora) Drabantseva. If in the dreams of a scientist the image of a written beauty was drawn, then the girl was very similar to her - with large gray-blue eyes, blond, with a slightly upturned nose. After the evening, Landau saw his new acquaintance home, and on the way told her about foreign countries. Upon learning that Cora was going to work as a technologist at a confectionery factory in a chocolate shop, he asked: “Let me call you Chocolate Girl. You know, I love chocolate." When the girl asked if chocolate was tasty in Europe, Landau replied: “I went on a business trip with state money. I couldn't spend it on chocolate. But he ate it in England, becoming a fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation. Their frivolous acquaintance with a lot of work over the course of several years acquired the quality of a serious relationship, since Lev Davidovich believed that “marriage is a cooperative that kills all love,” while adding that a good thing will not be called marriage. The recognized leader of Soviet theoretical thought was brought to the registry office only nine days before the birth of the child.

Separately, it is worth talking about the methodology for classifying scientists, which was developed by Lev Davidovich and made it possible to assess their capabilities, as well as their contribution to science. Academician Vitaly Ginzburg, who is a student of Lev Davidovich, spoke about the “Dau scale” in his article: “Many years ago, his passion for clarity and systematization resulted in a comic classification of physicists on a logarithmic scale. In accordance with it, a second-class physicist, for example, did ten times less (the key word is done, it was only about achievements) than a first-class physicist. On this scale, Albert Einstein was half class, while Schrödinger, Bohr, Heisenberg, Fermi, Dirac were first class. Landau himself referred to the two-and-a-half class, and only, having exchanged his fifth decade, was satisfied with his next job (I remember the conversation, but I forgot what achievement was discussed), he said that he had reached the second class.

Another classification of Landau referred to his relationship with the "weaker sex". The scientist divided the courtship process into twenty-four stages, and believed that up to the eleventh, the slightest hitch was fatal. Women, of course, were also divided into classes. Landau attributed the unattainable ideal to the first. Then came beautiful girls, then just pretty and pretty ones. The fourth class included the owners of something pleasing to the eye, but the fifth - all the rest. To establish the fifth class, according to Landau, it was necessary to have a chair. If you put a chair next to a fifth-grade woman, then it’s better to look not at her, but at the chair. In relation to the fair sex, the scientist also divided men into two groups: "fragrant" (who are interested in the inner content) and "beautiful". In turn, the "beautiful" fell into subspecies - "figure skaters", "snouts", "legists" and "armists". Landau considered himself to be a “pure beautiful man”, believing that a woman should be beautiful all over.

The pedagogical methods of Lev Davidovich were very different from the traditional ones, which eventually forced the rector of the university to take a number of actions to “reason” the teacher. Inviting Landau to his office, he expressed doubt that students of physics need to know who the author of "Eugene Onegin" is and what sins belong to "mortals." It was precisely this kind of questions that students often heard from a young professor during exams. Of course, the correct answers did not affect academic performance, but the rector's bewilderment must be recognized as legitimate. In conclusion, he informed Landau that "pedagogical science does not allow anything like this." “I have never heard more stupidity in my life,” Lev Davidovich answered ingenuously and was immediately fired. And although the rector could not expel the professor without the permission of the People's Commissar of Education, the victim did not waste time and effort on restoring justice and left for the capital of Russia. Three weeks after his departure, Landau told Kharkov students and colleagues that he would work for Kapitsa at the Institute of Physical Problems, writing in conclusion: "... And you, you have already reached the third and a half level and can work on your own."

Life at the Kapitsa Institute in those years was in full swing. The best specialists worked in this place, whom Pyotr Leonidovich looked for throughout the country. Lev Davidovich headed his theoretical department. In 1937-1938, thanks to experimental research by Kapitsa, the superfluidity of helium was discovered. Cooling helium to temperatures close to absolute zero, physicists observed its flow through ultrathin slots. Attempts to explain the phenomenon of superfluidity failed until Landau got down to business. The theory of superfluidity, for which he later received the Nobel Prize, was formed with a year's break. In April 1938, Lev Davidovich was arrested on trumped-up charges. At the Lubyanka, according to the physicist, "they tried to sew on him the authorship of some stupid leaflet, and this despite my disgust for any scribbling." Kapitsa was also outraged to the core. In the pre-war years, he enjoyed considerable influence in the government and used it to help his best theoretician. On the day of the arrest of the scientist, Kapitsa sent a letter to Iosif Vissarionovich, in which he said: “Comrade Stalin, today the researcher L.D. was arrested. Landau. Despite his age, he is the most prominent theoretical physicist in our country ... There is no doubt that his loss as a scientist for the Soviet and world sciences will not pass unnoticed and will be very strongly felt. In view of Landau's exceptional talent, I ask you to pay close attention to his case. It also seems to me that it is necessary to take into account his character, which, to put it simply, is bad. He is a bully and a bully, loves to look for mistakes in others and, when he finds them, begins to tease disrespectfully. By doing this, he made many enemies for himself ... However, with all the shortcomings, I do not believe that Landau is capable of something dishonest.

By the way, the relationship between the two scientists - Kapitza and Landau - was never friendly or close, but the "centaur", as the institute staff called their director, did everything possible to get the outstanding theorist back to work. Not counting only on his own authority, he drew the attention of Niels Bohr to the fate of the physicist. The Danish scientist immediately responded, and also wrote a letter to Stalin, in which, among other things, he said: “... I heard rumors about the arrest of Professor Landau. I am convinced that this is a regrettable misunderstanding, since I cannot imagine that Professor Landau, who has won the recognition of the scientific world for his significant contribution to atomic physics and who has devoted himself entirely to research work, could do something justifying the arrest ... ". In April 1939, the efforts of Pyotr Leonidovich were crowned with success - "under the guarantee of Kapitsa" Landau was released from prison.

Kapitsa was well aware that the rather modest position of the head of the theoretical department did not correspond well to the possibilities and scale of Landau's talent. Not once did he offer his collaborator assistance in creating a separate institute for theoretical physics, where Lev Davidovich could take the place of director. However, Landau categorically rejected such proposals: “I am absolutely unfit for administrative work. Now there are excellent conditions for work in Physical Problems, and of my own free will I will not leave here anywhere. ” However, the "excellent" conditions did not last long - in June 1941 the war began, and the Kapitsa Institute was evacuated to Kazan. During these years, Lev Davidovich, like many other scientists, refocused on solving defense problems, in particular, he dealt with problems related to the detonation of explosives. In 1943, the State Defense Committee decided to resume work on the uranium issue. Igor Kurchatov was appointed scientific director of the work, who turned to the government with a justification for the need for a theoretical study of the mechanism of a nuclear explosion and a proposal to entrust this problem to "Professor Landau, a well-known theoretical physicist, a fine expert on such issues." As a result, Lev Davidovich headed the work of the settlement department, which worked within the framework of the Atomic Project.

In 1946 serious changes took place at the Institute for Physical Problems. Pyotr Kapitsa fell into disgrace, the Council of Ministers of the USSR removed him from the post of director, completely reorienting the institute to solve problems related to the Atomic Project. Corresponding Member of the USSR Academy of Sciences Anatoly Aleksandrov was appointed the new head of the IFP. And Landau in the same year, bypassing the title of corresponding member, was elected a full member of the Academy of Sciences, also awarding him the Stalin Prize for research on phase transformations. However, his main business in those years remained the calculations of the processes occurring during a nuclear explosion. The merits of Lev Davidovich in the development of the atomic bomb are undeniable and were awarded two Stalin Prizes (in 1949 and 1953) and the title of Hero of Socialist Labor (1954). However, for the scientist himself, this work became a tragedy, since Lev Davidovich organically could not do what he was not interested in, he said about this: “Due to the brevity of life, we cannot afford the luxury of wasting time on tasks that do not lead to new results." An example of Landau's attitude to the nuclear bomb is a characteristic episode. Once, while giving a lecture at the House of Writers, he touched on thermonuclear reactions, saying that they were of no practical importance. Someone from the audience reminded the scientist about the thermonuclear bomb, to which Lev Davidovich immediately replied that it could not even occur to him to classify the bomb as a practical application of nuclear energy.

Shortly after the death of Joseph Stalin, Landau handed over all the affairs related to the Atomic Project to his student Isaak Khalatnikov, and he himself returned to the creation of the Theoretical Physics Course, a work that he wrote throughout his life. The Course consisted of ten volumes, the very first of which was published in 1938, and the last two appeared in print after the scientist's death. This work, written in a clear and lively language, is devoted to the most complex issues of modern physics. It has been translated into many languages ​​and is, without exaggeration, a reference book for every physicist in the world.

On May 5, 1961, Niels Bohr came to Moscow at the invitation of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Lev Davidovich met his teacher at the airport, and all the days of Bor's stay in Russia he practically did not part with him. In those days, at one of the innumerable seminars, someone asked the guest how he created his first-class school of physics. The famous Dane replied: "I was never afraid to show my students that I was dumber than them." Evgeny Lifshitz, who translated the speech of the scientist, made a mistake and said: "I have never been shy about telling my students that they are fools." Pyotr Kapitsa reacted to the uproar with a smile: “This reservation is not accidental. It expresses the main difference between the Bohr school and the Landau school, to which Lifshitz belongs.

On January 7, 1962, on the way to Dubna, Lev Davidovich got into a terrible car accident. Its consequences were terrible, according to the first entry in the history of the disease, the following were recorded: “a fracture of the vault and base of the skull, multiple bruises of the brain, a bruised-lacerated wound in the temporal region, a compressed chest, a fracture of seven ribs, a fracture of the pelvis, lung damage.” The famous neurosurgeon Sergei Fedorov, who arrived at the consultation, said: “It was quite obvious that the patient was dying. Hopeless, agonizing patient. In the four days that have passed since the catastrophe, Landau was near death three times. On January 22, the scientist developed cerebral edema. In the hospital where Lev Davidovich was lying, a "physical headquarters" of eighty-seven people was organized. Landau's students, friends and colleagues were in the hospital around the clock, organizing consultations with foreign medical luminaries, and collecting the money necessary for treatment. Only a month and a half after the tragedy, the doctors announced that the patient's life was out of danger. And on December 18, 1962, Lev Davidovich said: “I lost a year, but I learned during this time that people are much better than I thought.”

On November 1, 1962, a telegram was delivered to Landau, who was in the hospital of the Academy of Sciences, saying that he had been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for "pioneer work in the field of the theory of condensed matter, primarily liquid helium." The next day, the Swedish Ambassador arrived at the hospital, holding an official ceremony of presenting the prestigious award. From that moment on, the scientist came under close attention of the press. Not a day passed without correspondents trying to get into his room. Despite the poor health and the warnings of doctors who tried to limit access to the patient, the Nobel laureate gladly received everyone. A reporter from a Swedish newspaper who visited Lev Davidovich described the meeting as follows: “Landau has turned gray, he has a stick in his hands, and he moves with small steps. But as soon as you talk to him, it immediately becomes clear that the diseases have not changed him at all. There is no doubt that if it were not for the pain, he would have immediately set to work ... ".

By the way, the doctors who treated the brilliant physicist more than once or twice had to deal with his peculiar character, which many found unbearable. One day, a famous psychiatrist and neuropathologist came to Lev Davidovich, treating him with hypnosis. Landau, who called hypnosis "a deception of the working people," greeted the guest warily. The doctor, warned in turn about the nature of the patient, took two more doctors with him to show his abilities. Shortly after the beginning of the session, the doctor's assistants fell asleep. Landau himself felt uncomfortable, but he did not want to sleep. The doctor, anticipating a major failure, gathered all his will in his eyes, but the scientist only frowned and looked at his watch impatiently. After the psychiatrist left, Lev Davidovich told his wife: “Balagan. He also brought a couple of geese with him, which slept here.

In total, Landau spent more than two years in the hospital - only at the end of January 1964 the scientist was allowed to leave the hospital ward. But, despite the recovery, Lev Davidovich could no longer return to active work. And soon after the celebration of the sixtieth birthday - on the morning of March 24, 1968, Landau suddenly became ill. The council, assembled in the hospital of the Academy of Sciences, spoke in favor of the operation. The first three days after it, the physicist felt so good that the doctors had hopes for recovery. However, on the fifth day, the patient's temperature rose, and on the sixth day, his heart began to fail. On the morning of April 1, Lev Davidovich said: "I will not survive this day." He was dying in consciousness, his last words were: “I lived a good life. I've always been good at everything." Lev Davidovich was buried at the Novodevichy Cemetery on April 4, 1968.

The question of what Landau's achievement in science should be considered the most important has no answer. A highly specialized approach to theory did not touch the brilliant scientist. He felt equally at ease in non-overlapping areas - from quantum field theory to hydrodynamics. They said about Lev Davidovich: "In this frail fragile body there is a whole institute of theoretical physics." It is not given to everyone to assess the scale of his activities in science. But you can trust the words of knowledgeable people who said: “Landau created a completely new image of a scientist, some kind of separate philosophy of life. Physics has turned into a kind of romantic country, an exciting adventure ... What he accomplished is dressed in an utterly beautiful, magnificent form, and acquaintance with his works gives physicists great aesthetic pleasure.

October 4, 1916 (according to the new style) in Moscow was born an outstanding Soviet and then Russian theoretical physicist Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg, professor, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1966), laureate of the Lenin Prize (1966), the Stalin Prize of the first degree (1953), Nobel Prize in Physics (2003). His authority in the scientific field was recognized throughout the world. He was a foreign member of the Danish Academy of Sciences (1977), the US National Academy of Sciences (1981) and the Royal Society of London (1987). The pinnacle of his scientific career was the Nobel Prize in Physics, which he received in 2003 together with A. Abrikosov and A. Leggett for his contribution to the development of the theory of superconductivity and superfluidity.

Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg was born in Moscow into an intelligent Jewish family of an engineer, a water purification specialist, a graduate of the Riga Polytechnic School Lazar Efimovich Ginzburg and a doctor, a graduate of Kharkov University Augusta Veniaminovna Ginzburg (before her marriage, Wildauer). Vitaly Ginzburg was left without a mother very early, she died in 1920 from typhoid fever. After the death of his mother, his aunt, the younger sister of his mother, Rosa Veniaminovna Wildauer, took up the education of the future scientist. Until the age of 11, the boy was educated at home, mainly under the guidance of his father.

Only in 1927 did he enter the 4th grade of the 57th seven-year school, which he graduated in 1931, after which he continued his education at the FZU - a factory school. Later, he independently continued his education, working as a laboratory assistant in the X-ray laboratory, where he worked together with the future famous physicists V. A. Tsukerman and L. V. Altshuler, he was friends with the latter all his life. In 1934, Ginzburg immediately entered the 2nd year of Moscow State University, the Faculty of Physics, from which he graduated in 1938. In 1940, he completed his postgraduate studies at this faculty, successfully defending his Ph.D. thesis in the same year. He defended his doctoral dissertation already during the war years - in 1942. Later, the scientist recalled that he was not taken to the front, although he applied twice to volunteer. Starting from 1942, he worked in the theoretical department named after I. E. Tamm at the FIAN (Physical Institute of the Academy of Sciences), subsequently holding the post of head of this department (from 1971 to 1988). At the same time, since 1945, Vitaly Ginzburg was a professor at Gorky State University, and since 1968, a professor at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. At this institute, he headed the Department of Problems of Physics and Astrophysics, which he himself created in 1968.

Scientific works and areas of work of the scientist were concentrated in various fields of physics, optics, astrophysics, radio astronomy. Even before the Great Patriotic War, Ginzburg was engaged in solving problems of quantum electrodynamics. During the war years, he, like most theoretical physicists, was engaged in solving applied problems related to defense topics: electromagnetic processes in layered cores (in relation to antennas), spreading of radio pulses upon reflection from the ionosphere (this scientific work was the beginning of many years of research into the propagation of electromagnetic waves in plasma).

In the 1940s, the scope of the scientist's interests included problems in the theory of elementary particles, which were associated with higher spins. The works of Vitaly Ginzburg in the field of the theory of radiation and propagation of light in liquids and solids are recognized as very important. After discovering and explaining the nature of the Vavilov-Chernikov effect, Ginzburg was able to construct a quantum theory of this effect, as well as a theory of superluminal radiation in crystals (1940).

In 1946, Ginzburg, together with I. M. Frank, became the creator of the theory of transition radiation, which occurs when a particle crosses the boundary of two media. He made a significant contribution to the phenomenology of ferroelectric phenomena, as well as to the theory of phase transitions, to crystal optics and the theory of excitons. Vitaly Ginzburg was one of the first scientists to realize the crucial role of X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy. In particular, in the assessment of the proton-nuclear component of cosmic rays (just as radio astronomy today gives us an idea of ​​their electronic component).

The scientist personally took part in many outstanding scientific projects of his time. In particular, he worked on the Soviet atomic project (Ginzburg owns one of the main ideas that formed the basis of the hydrogen bomb device). Being one of the creators of the Soviet hydrogen bomb, he never repented of this, as he acted out of patriotic considerations. He took part in an expedition to Brazil to carry out radio observations of the solar corona, and also created two large scientific schools in the country - one in Moscow (on space physics), the second in Gorky (on radio physics).

By his own admission, he became a theorist quite by accident. Vitaly Ginzburg recalled that he was weak in mathematics and believed that he was no theoretician and generally suffered from an inferiority complex. However, one day, with one of his ideas, he came to the well-known at that time Soviet scientist Igor Tamm, who showed genuine interest in the young specialist, literally infecting him with his enthusiasm. He asked Ginzburg to come in and tell him about his scientific work, this inspired the young scientist. In his own words, then he actually began a new life.

Vitaly Ginzburg was a well-known popularizer of science, he became the author of a number of books and articles on various problems of modern physics and astrophysics. Another topic of his publications was the activity of the Academy of Sciences as a whole, as well as the improvement of its charter and subjects, the election of new members of the Academy. In total, during his life he wrote about 400 scientific articles and books. He was rightfully considered one of the greatest scientific physicists of the 20th century, his works had a very great influence on the development of modern physics, and he himself made an invaluable contribution to world science. Ginzburg said that today sports have in common with science in that they are no longer associated with a particular country. More than one generation of Russian physicists grew up on the works written by him. At the same time, Ginzburg liked to say that his popular science articles, in terms of the style of presentation, were designed primarily for high school students, as well as people with higher non-physical education, which is why he supported the use of school mathematical formulas in such articles, with which the maximum range is familiar. readers.

Throughout his life, especially at its final stage, Ginzburg publicly fought against pseudoscience, even if such a struggle made many of his colleagues smile. Vitaly Ginzburg considered the fight against the juggling of near-scientific facts and various superstitions a matter of honor. And when most of the former communists shoveled in the church with candles, Ginzburg was practically the only one who always spoke openly about his commitment to atheism. The position of the scientist was extremely clear: faith is the right and free choice of every person, but he was always against the planting of religion, especially in schools. He was opposed to the spread of religious beliefs to secular institutions. According to him, the teaching of religion or the law of God in ordinary schools is absolutely unacceptable, but he was not against teaching the history of religion in schools.

Being an atheist, Vitaly Ginzburg denied the existence of God. For him, as a scientist, all knowledge was based on science, clear evidence, experimentation and analysis. “A miracle is contrary to science,” the physicist said. And since religions are based on belief in miracles, he could not come to terms with this. Ginzburg said: "I am an enemy of all miracles and do not believe that people can be resurrected, but I envy believers: they have consolation."

According to the memoirs of the contemporaries of the famous scientist, Ginzburg had exceptional intuition. So, in the middle of the 20th century, he, together with his colleague Lev Landau, was able to explain one of the very complex phenomena in the physical world - the phenomenon of superconductivity. This was done thanks to a unique guess. Scientists in the USSR were the first to approach the solution of the problem not from the position of the microworld, but from the point of view of macroprocesses. They proposed a fundamentally different view of the very nature of superconductivity. In the future, the Ginzburg-Landau theory was indeed confirmed, but this happened only after a few decades. An outstanding domestic scientist who was a student of Vitaly Ginzburg, Leonid Keldysh, said this about him: “It was impossible to learn the style of his work, since it was unique and entirely based on his amazing physical intuition and ability to find non-standard, unusual solutions and approaches.” Ginzburg himself liked to say that the fate of a person is nothing more than a chain of accidents, I am convinced of this again and again.

This chain of accidents and non-standard moves ultimately led him in 2003 to the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to the development of the theory of superconductivity and superfluidity. At the same time, the Nobel Prize was awarded to the work, which in 1966 received the Lenin Prize. Then it was received by three - Alexei Abrikosov, Vitaly Ginzburg and Lev Gorkov, in 2003 the Nobel Committee for some reason excluded Lev Gorkov from this list. Ginzburg himself, who was a rather sharp-tongued person, commented on the receipt of the Nobel Prize in the following way: “Every scientist can become a Nobel laureate if he lives long enough.” By the time the award was presented, he was already 87 years old.

Academician Vitaly Ginzburg was married twice. His first wife, Olga Zamsha (from 1937 to 1946), was his classmate and also a physicist, in this marriage his only daughter, Irina, was born. His second wife was the experimental physicist Nina Ermakova, whom he met during the Great Patriotic War, he married her in 1946 and lived with her for the rest of his life. It is curious that both daughter Irina and Ginzburg's granddaughter Victoria also connected their lives with physics, having achieved certain successes in this area.

During his long life, Vitaly Ginzburg was awarded numerous state orders and medals. In particular, two orders of the Red Banner of Labor (1956 and 1986), the Order of Lenin (1954), two Orders of the Badge of Honor (1954 and 1975), the Order of Merit for the Fatherland, III degree (1996) - for outstanding scientific achievements and training of highly qualified personnel and the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland" I degree (2006) - for an outstanding contribution to the development of domestic science and many years of fruitful activity. In 1946 he was awarded the medal "For Valiant Labor in the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945".

Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg passed away on the evening of November 8, 2009 in Moscow. He died after a long illness from heart failure, at that time the scientist was already 93 years old. The funeral of the Nobel laureate in physics took place on November 11, 2009, the scientist was buried in the capital, at the Novodevichy cemetery.

Small modular reactors are one of the most popular areas for the development of nuclear power and reactor technologies.

Over the 70 years of their existence, nuclear power reactors have taken a strong position in the global balance of electricity production. Their power has increased from a few megawatts to almost two gigawatts (although there have been larger projects).

A modern nuclear power plant is not only a power unit with a reactor plant and a turbogenerator. This is an oriented cluster of workshops and industries that serve to ensure the operation of such a powerful unit at the proper level. Think about it: at any nuclear power plant there are not only a large number of safety systems (which, by the way, are subject to the principle of redundancy), but also systems for providing and supporting these safety systems. I am simply silent about the number and variety of systems for normal operation.

The number of personnel at such facilities is on average about 1000 people per power unit. And if there may be additional production facilities at the NPP site, for example, a radioactive waste processing complex, a separate spent fuel storage facility or even a desalination plant, then the number of personnel will only increase.

Bruce Nuclear Power Plant (Canada) - 6232 MW (e). The photo shows the workshops for the production of heavy water.

It would seem that if the station is economically profitable and generates a large amount of electricity, what's the catch?

Modern nuclear power plants, as large industrial complexes, have significant drawbacks. First of all, these are huge costs for the construction of such a complex. For example, the cost of construction of power unit No. 3 of the Olkiluoto NPP changed from 3 to 8.5 billion dollars (it is worth considering the fact that some supporting shops and qualified personnel already exist at the station). For comparison, the cost of the LHC was 6 billion dollars.

The operation and maintenance of such giants requires not only an operating organization, but also a supervisory authority, a large number of institutes and research centers to support operation and safety.

In countries with low electricity consumption, nuclear power plants in their modern form will be economically unprofitable. I think readers can imagine how big the costs are for nuclear power plant owners after the end of their operating life, when the plant needs to be dismantled, processed and packaged waste from the production of electricity at nuclear power plants. Experience shows that the decommissioning of large nuclear power plants is usually behind schedule.

Another reality

In parallel with large power plants, dozens of installations for military programs were developed, for example, submarine reactors (up to 190 MW) and research reactors. All this gave impetus to the development of small reactors in the future.

So what is it? In the definition of the IAEA, "small" - reactors with electrical power up to 300 MW, "medium" - up to 700 MW. However, "SMR" is most often used as an acronym for "small modular reactor", designed for serial construction, as an alternative to the complex design of the "atomic island" with its bulky rooms and buildings.

SMR - small modular reactors - installations developed using integrated technologies (reactors with pumps (or without) and steam generators in one building), which are planned to be manufactured at factories, using all the economic charms of mass production. They can be built independently of one another or as modules in a larger complex, with capacity added incrementally as needed.

Small reactors can be located anywhere and any way.

The Flexblue project is an energy module located under water.

Russian military exotic - concept.

Most SMRs, when compared with large reactors, are low maintenance. In particular, the designs of such reactors involve a longer interval between fuel refueling (from 2 to 10 years versus 12–24 months for large power units) or fuel loading in general for the entire life cycle - for this it is necessary to periodically (every 10 or more years) carry out replacement of the compact reactor module.

Main advantages:

1. The lower specific power of the reactor facility a priori makes it safer in terms of energy density (lower power means lower residual heat release after shutdown). From the point of view of the backend, there are relatively low amounts of accumulated radioactive waste.
2. Power units of this type are less dependent on the possibility of taking a large amount of cooling water nearby. Thus, they are perfect for working in remote corners of the planet (and not only), for example, generating energy for mining.
3. The presence of a sufficient number of passive safety systems. In a good way (in theory), these systems solve the main emergency problem - the loss of the final consumer of heat in the event of an accident. In fact, although the systems are passive, they also need constant supervision and maintenance. But it is worth recognizing the greater resistance of small switchgears to a typical situation - a complete loss of power supply.
4. Minimization of technically complex construction and installation works, taking into account the specifics of the regions of possible placement. Minimum maintenance. Reducing the number of required field staff.
5. Possibility of significant simplification of the procedure for decommissioning of these power units.

Small reactors with a close prospect of implementation (10-15 years) are classified as PWR (pressure water-cooled reactors), fast neutron reactors or high-temperature reactors (mainly with gas coolant).

From left to right: 1 - water-water Westinghouse SMR. 2 - helium HTMR-100. 3 - fast PRISM.

Since most MMR projects are at the concept level and require significant R&D in the future, in order to bring specifics to my story, I will focus on the two most relevant, already finished projects.

1) NuScale (NuScale Power Inc., USA)

The NuScale Plant project, formerly MASLWR, is a low power pressurized water reactor unit of 45 MW(e).

It was developed jointly by the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory and the University of Oregon (USA). In 2007, NuScale Power Inc. was established to commercialize the project. The project has been under development since 2000. Since this is a modular reactor, 12 such modules are installed on the site as a standard.

Reactor building. Sectional view.

The core, steam generators and pressure compensator are located within the same vessel, there are no circulation pumps. The case diameter is 2.9 meters, height is 17.4 meters.

The coolant, heated in the core, moves up, gives off heat in the steam generator, and returns back through the downcomer channels. Natural circulation, yes.

The active zone is recruited from fuel assemblies with the beautiful name NuFuel-HTP2. In fact, it is similar in design to the fuel assemblies for Western PWR units. The technical specification for the assembly for NRC is here. The reloading is planned to be done every 24 months.

Fuel assemblies of the NuScale reactor. By the way, produced by AREVA.

NuScale Reactor Core Load Cartogram.

The main distinguishing feature from similar projects is that the reactor vessel is additionally placed in a thick-walled stainless steel metal vessel. The whole structure is in the pool, completely submerged in water. The decay heat removal system consists of two independent passive systems.

Scheduled and emergency heat removal systems.

At the end of 2016, the company filed an application for a license with the American regulator. This is the first license application for SMR in the US. This fact means that at this stage the project is almost completely ready, and has the opportunity to become a real, salable product.

2) CAREM-25 (CNEA, Argentina)

The reader probably did not expect to see this country among the top developers of SMRs, but Argentina is now the closest to operating a 25-megawatt demonstration modular reactor.

The CAREM-25 is an integral type PWR that began construction in 2014 in the vicinity of the Atucha Nuclear Power Plant. It is pleasantly surprising that this is an Argentinean technology, and 70% of the equipment and materials are planned to be received from local manufacturers.

The project is designed as an energy source for power supply to regions with low consumption. It can also be used to operate a desalination plant.

Reactor vessel and main safety systems.

The core, hydraulic actuators of the controls, and twelve straight-tube vertical steam generators (with steam superheat) are located in one building - according to all the canons of modularity. In the first circuit - natural circulation. The reactor vessel has a diameter of 3.2 meters and a height of 11 meters. The active zone is recruited from 61 hexagonal fuel cartridges.

Fuel assemblies of the CAREM-25 reactor.

CAREM-25 contains passive and simple active safety systems. The design assumes that in a severe accident, the core remains intact for 36 hours without operator action and without external power supply. Expected core damage frequency (ECD)–10E-07 reactor/year.

The fission chain reaction is stopped using two independent systems - control rods and a system for injecting boron into water. Under normal operating conditions, bur is not used.

Removal of residual energy is carried out by a passive PRHRS system. It works on the principle of a technological capacitor (isolation condenser). The PRHRS condensers are located in a basin at the top of the containment. The system provides heat removal from the core for 36 hours.

Process condenser and pool of the PRHRS system.

The design also provides for a passive emergency system for pouring water into the EIS core in the event of a pressure drop in the vessel below the set value of 1.5 MPa - at this pressure, the safety diaphragm breaks, and borated water is poured into the vessel from the EIS system tank. In a simple way - ECCS hydrocapacity.

The first download is planned for 2018.

There are a lot of questions about this project. For example, the reliability of 12 in-vessel steam generators, the possibility of their inspection and repair.

And this is how the building of the power unit will look from the outside.

As a conclusion, it is worth noting that small reactors will allow “recharging the engine” of the peaceful atom and giving the industry new strength, while lower capacity, which means shorter construction times, will reduce the cost of generation and compete with renewable energy that is gaining popularity.

At the end of 2016, a consortium was established to implement the strategic goal of starting commercial operation of small reactors from the mid-2020s. Its members include AREVA, Bechtel, BWXT, Dominion, Duke Energy, Energy Northwest, Fluor, Holtec International, NuScale Power, Ontario Power Generation, PSEG, TVA, and Utah Associated Municipal Power Systems. As you can see, there are several significant players.

So it’s too early to talk about a bright future, but positive dynamics are still visible.

On the brink of war

By the end of the 1930s, the coming world conflict was becoming more and more clear-cut, the countries of Europe were heavily armed. Since the time of the clumsy "steel monsters" of the First World War, a whole generation of armored vehicles and tanks has already been replaced, and the developments of the early thirties have gradually gone into the past.

Two "34" (right) in the company of BT-7M and A-20

The country needed an armored fighting vehicle, confidently acting in a breakthrough and in defense (BT tanks, as it turned out, could no longer give this). What was needed was a passable vehicle with anti-shell armor, reliably holding the blow of new and much more powerful anti-tank guns than the German 37-mm "mallets" (which neither the T-26, nor the T-28, nor the T-35 gave). A modern medium tank was required, superior to the heavy KV in mobility, but not inferior to them in firepower and armor protection.

T-34 booking scheme

Work on the new vehicle began in the Kharkov design bureau of plant No. 183 under the leadership of the legendary "father" of the T-34 tank, Mikhail Ilyich Koshkin, you can read his biography on our portal. The designer, already experienced at that time, who, as we say, brought to mind the light BT-7, enthusiastically led the work on the new tank. In a short time, the Kharkiv residents offered as many as two options for the future car with the indices A-20 and A-32. The "twentieth" turned out to be lighter than necessary, and had no potential for modernization, but the military liked the "thirty-second".

"First Swallow"

With these words, at the walls of the Kremlin, I.V. Stalin met brand new, making a good impression, squat and well-built cars during their show to the top leadership of the USSR on March 17, 1940. And already on the 31st, the tank got on the production lines, the country needed as many first-class vehicles as possible.

А-32

Back in January 1940, the A-32s turned into T-34s, the armor was increased to 45 mm and had a rational angle of inclination, which increased its durability, and the powerful 76 mm L-11 gun replaced the 45 mm gun, which was replaced a little later on the F-34 (with the best performance). The crew also had a pair of DT machine guns.

The new tanks had to be shown to the military in Moscow. The history of the transfer of the first two "swallows" under its own power from Kharkov to Moscow off public roads even formed the basis of a feature film, which, however, is more like fiction.

T-34 of the first series with the L-11 gun

The main performance characteristics of T-34 :

“Combat weight 26.6 tons; diesel V-2 with a capacity of 500 HP;

Maximum speed - 54 km / h;

Armor protection - 45 mm thick (35 - 15-10);

Specific power 19.5 HP per ton of weight."

Test drivers Nosik and Dyukalov, who sat behind the levers of two vehicles for the entire 750 km of run, demonstrated good maneuverability of the tank in front of the military leadership, the tank was also tested in Kubinka and even on the remnants of the anti-tank fortifications of the defeated Mannerheim Line. Only one event overshadowed the birth of the legend: M.I. died of pneumonia. Koshkin, when he was already very wet with a cold, helping to pull out a stuck T-34 at the crossing. His business of developing a new combat vehicle was continued by A.A. Morozov is a colleague and student.

In the terrible years of the war

By June 22, 1941, there were a little more than a thousand new vehicles in the tank units and formations of the Red Army. In the very first border battles, the new machine distinguished itself: it not only showed itself from the best side in battle, but also aroused respect from the enemy.

T-34 with F-34

The production of tanks was started only at two plants - No. 183 in Kharkov (the city soon fell into the hands of the enemy) and at the STZ (the plant was badly damaged during the battles for Stalingrad). It is clear that the course of the war, the rapidly shifting front line and the evacuation of industry were the factors that prevented the rapid increase in production of the T-34.

T-34 mod. 1943

The country's leadership, realizing the value of the new machine, is expanding the production of a new tank at the Krasnoye Sormovo plants (Gorky, now Nizhny Novgorod), the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant, Uralmash (Sverdlovsk, now Yekaterinburg), plant No. 174 in Omsk and Uralvagonzavod ( Nizhny Tagil). Until 1943, development proceeded within the framework of the existing model. The production technology was simplified, production was increased in the conditions of the evacuation of enterprises (12,520 tanks in 1942, 15,696 vehicles in 1943). And this already exceeded the German production of medium tanks. During the war years, more than 53 thousand copies of the T-34 of all series and modifications were produced. And the release of more than 6 thousand licensed post-war tanks in the aggregate made the "thirty-four" the most massive tank, and this superiority has been maintained to this day.

Already in the first months of the war, many of our tankers distinguished themselves in battles on the T-34. For example, Heroes of the Soviet Union Dmitry Fedorovich Lavrinenko (1st Guards Tank Brigade, 52 victories in 28 battles, the title was awarded posthumously); Vladimir Alexandrovich Bochkovsky (1st Guards Tank Brigade, 36 victories); Nikolai Rodionovich Andreev (6th Guards Tank Brigade, 27 victories, one tank destroyed by ramming).

T-34 production

During the war, the design of the T-34 was constantly modernized and supplemented with new elements. The main task was to reduce the cost and labor intensity of its production. At the same time, they tried to increase its combat capability. A commander's cupola appears on the tank, the design of the towers itself has undergone changes - from cast and welded early types to the "nut"; there were attempts to install the most powerful 57-mm anti-tank gun at that time, the rollers were simplified and much more. Self-propelled guns were also produced on the successful T-34 chassis (Su-122, Su-85, Su-100), there was a flamethrower version of the OT-34 and a repair and recovery vehicle.

From Kursk to the Win

With the advent of heavy tanks in the enemy, superior to the “thirty-four”, primarily in the range of entry into battle, and therefore in the caliber of the gun and the thickness of the armor, there was a need for a radical modernization of the tank. A "fighter" was required so that he could fight on equal terms with the "Panthers" and "Tigers". For example, near Kursk, our tankers often had to get close to enemy tanks for a long time in order to be able to hit their thin sides.

T-34-85

But already in the spring of 1944, a new T-34 appeared on the fronts, which received the index "85" according to the caliber of the new gun.

The new turret with increased volume and reinforced armor protection is structurally similar to the turret of the experimental T-43 tank. The overall protection of the crew has also increased, which has also been increased to 5 people, a gunner has been added, the commander has been freed from aiming the gun, and the conditions for the functional interaction of crew members have been improved. The mobility indicators (speed, maneuverability and maneuverability) of the T-34-85 tank decreased slightly due to an increase in its combat weight. The main advantage of the new machine was the new gun, which “sewed” the armor of German heavy tanks that had deteriorated by the end of the war. And maneuverability allowed the crew of the T-34-85 to destroy several "Royal Tigers" from the rear, while they were only trying to understand where the fire was coming from.

Т-34-85 at the end of WW2

T-34-85 carried intensive service right up to the end of the 60s in all conceivable earthly limits and points of the world. Its characteristic silhouette is difficult to confuse with another car.

But the most important thing in the biography of the T-34 is that it has become a symbol of the Great Victory. As then, in 1945, the parade detachment of these tanks every year passes through Red Square on May 9th. And along the entire combat path of the Red Army, in places of the most difficult battles on pedestals, our T-34 will always proudly rush forward.

Author: Ryabov Kirill

Demonstration of the SNAP 3 generator to the US leadership, 1959. Photo by the US Department of Energy

First in space

In 1954, the first radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG or RTG) was created in the USA. The main element of the RTG is a radioactive isotope that naturally decays with the release of thermal energy. With the help of a thermoelement, thermal energy is converted into electrical energy, which is issued to consumers.

The main advantage of RTG is the possibility of long-term operation with stable characteristics and without maintenance. The lifetime is determined by the half-life of the selected isotope. At the same time, such a generator is characterized by low efficiency and output power, and also needs biological protection and appropriate safety measures. However, RTGs have found application in a number of areas with special requirements.

Preparations for the launch of the Transit 4A satellite with RTG SNAP 3B. Photo by NASA

In 1961, an RTG of the SNAP 3B type was created in the USA with 96 g of plutonium-238 in a capsule. In the same year, the Transit 4A satellite, equipped with such a generator, went into orbit. It became the first spacecraft in Earth orbit using the energy of nuclear decay. In 1965, the USSR launched the Kosmos-84 satellite, its first apparatus with the Orion-1 RTG using polonium-210.

In the future, the two superpowers actively used RTGs in the creation of space technology for various purposes. For example, a number of rovers of recent decades receive electricity precisely from the decay of radioactive elements. Similarly, the power supply of missions moving away from the Sun is provided.

Scheme of the NERVA engine. Photo by NASA

For more than half a century, RTGs have proven their capabilities in a number of areas, incl. in the space industry, although they remained a specialized tool for individual tasks. However, even in this role, radioisotope generators contribute to the development of the industry, research, etc.

Nuclear rocket

Soon after the start of space programs, leading countries began to work on the issue of creating a nuclear rocket engine. Different architectures have been proposed with different operating principles and different benefits. For example, in the American project Orion, a spacecraft was proposed that uses a shock wave of low-yield nuclear warheads to accelerate. Also worked out designs of a more familiar form.

In the fifties and sixties, NASA and related organizations developed the NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application) engine. Its main component was an open cycle nuclear reactor. The working fluid in the form of liquid hydrogen was supposed to be heated from the reactor and ejected through a nozzle, creating thrust. A nuclear engine of this kind was superior in design characteristics to traditional chemical fuel systems, although it was more dangerous to operate.

Engine RD-0410. Photo KBHA

The NERVA project was brought to the test of various components and the entire installation assembly. During the tests, the engine was turned on 28 times and worked for almost 2 hours. The characteristics were confirmed; there were no significant problems. However, the project was not further developed. At the turn of the sixties and seventies, the American space program was seriously reduced, and the NERVA engine was abandoned.

In the same period, similar work was carried out in the USSR. A promising project proposed the use of an engine with a reactor that heats the working fluid in the form of liquid hydrogen. In the early sixties, a reactor for such an engine was created, and later work began on the rest of the units. For a long time, testing and testing of various devices continued.

The proposed appearance of the Prometheus system in the configuration for the flight to Jupiter. Photo by NASA

In the seventies, the finished RD-0410 engine passed a series of fire tests and confirmed the main characteristics. However, the project did not receive further development due to high complexity and risks. The domestic rocket and space industry continued to use "chemical" engines.

Space tugs

In the course of further research and design work in the United States and in our country, they came to the conclusion that it was inappropriate to use engines of the NERVA or RD-0410 type. In 2003, NASA began testing a fundamentally new spacecraft architecture with a nuclear power plant. The project was named Prometheus.

The new concept proposed the construction of a spacecraft with a full-fledged reactor on board to generate electricity, as well as with an ion jet engine. Such a device could find application in long-range research missions. However, the development of Prometheus turned out to be prohibitively expensive, and the results were expected only in the distant future. In 2005, the project was closed due to lack of prospects.

An early version of the TEM complex. RSC Energia graphics

In 2009, the development of a similar product began in Russia. The "transport and energy module" (TEM) or "space tug" should receive a megawatt-class nuclear power plant, coupled with an ID-500 ion engine. The ship is proposed to be assembled in the Earth's orbit and used to transport various payloads, accelerate other spacecraft, etc.

The TEM project is highly complex, which affects its cost and deadlines. In addition, there were numerous organizational problems. Nevertheless, by the middle of the tenth years, individual components of the TEM were brought to the test. Work continues and in the future may lead to the emergence of a real "space tug". The construction of such an apparatus is planned for the second half of the twenties; commissioning - in 2030

In the absence of serious difficulties and the timely implementation of all plans, TEM can become the first product in the world of its class, brought to operation. At the same time, there is a certain margin of time, while excluding the possibility of the timely appearance of competitors

Late version of TEM. Roscosmos graphics

Perspectives and limitations

Nuclear technologies are of great interest to the rocket and space industry. First of all, power plants of different classes can be useful. RTGs have already found application and are firmly entrenched in some areas. Full-fledged nuclear reactors are not yet used due to their large dimensions and weight, but there are already developments on ships with such equipment.

For several decades, the leading space and nuclear powers have worked out and tested in practice a number of original ideas, determined their viability and found the main areas of application. Similar processes are still going on, and, probably, will soon give new results of a practical nature.

It should be noted that nuclear technologies are not widely used in the space industry, and this situation is unlikely to change. At the same time, they turn out to be useful and promising in certain areas and projects. And it is in these niches that the available potential is already being realized.